TYPE Original Research PUBLISHED 01 March 2023 DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 T-pattern detection in the OPEN ACCESS scientific literature of this EDITED BY Ioannis Pavlidis, University of Houston, United States century: A systematic review REVIEWED BY Julen Castellano, M. Teresa Anguera1 , Gudberg K. Jonsson2*, University of the Basque Country, Spain Elena Escolano-Pérez3 , Carmen Rosa Sánchez-Lopez4 , Michael Brill, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, José Luis Losada5 and Mariona Portell6 Germany 1 Oleguer Camerino, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Human Universitat de Lleida, Spain Behavior Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland, 3 Faculty of Education, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, 4 Department of Clinical Psychology, *CORRESPONDENCE Psychobiology and Methodology, University of La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain, 5 Faculty Gudberg K. Jonsson of Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 6 Department of Psychobiology gjonsson@hi.is and Methodology of Health Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain SPECIALTY SECTION This article was submitted to Quantitative Psychology and Measurement, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Introduction: Scientific literature contains mainly systematic reviews focused on RECEIVED 31October 2022 substantial aspects, but there are also approaches that have combined both ACCEPTED 27 January 2023 substantial and methodological aspects, which is our preferred option since it PUBLISHED 01 March 2023 undeniably adds value. The aims of this study were: (1) to carry out a systematic CITATION Anguera MT, Jonsson GK, Escolano-Pérez E, review of the literatura on T-Pattern analysis (TPA), and (2) to explore the possible Sánchez-Lopez CR, Losada JL and Portell M contribution of mixed methods research to the integration of qualitative and (2023) T-pattern detection in the scientific literature of this century: A systematic review. quantitative elements on a synthesis level. Front. Psychol. 14:1085980. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 Methods: Based on PRISMA guidelines, searches were carried out in the Scopus, COPYRIGHT PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases. The general search syntax was: © 2023 Anguera, Jonsson, Escolano-Pérez, “THEME” AND (“T-Patterns” OR “T Patterns”) carried out in title, keywords and Sánchez-Lopez, Losada and Portell. This is an abstract. In addition, we included empirical articles on THEME and T-Patterns open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License collected in other sources based on citations in several empirical works and (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction consultations with different authors. This selection process resulted in 125 primary in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) documents making up this systematic review. are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with Results: The results showed that the detection of structures in behavior patterns accepted academic practice. No use, forms a nexus between studies carried out in very diverse fields and contexts. distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Most studies are observational, whilst the applicability and power of T-Pattern detection are extraordinary. It allows the researcher to go deeper in a robust analysis that responds to the integration of qualitative and quantitative elements which constitutes the leit motive of mixed methods; and also to discover the deep, hidden structure that underlies the respective databases, regardless of the methodology used in each study. The possibilities in assigning parameters notably increase the options for obtaining results and their interpretation. Discussion: It is relevant the extraordinary strength and applicability of T-pattern detection. There is a high presence of T-pattern detection and analysis in studies using observational methodology. It is necessary commit to consolidating the methodological analysis of selected works, as taking individual and collective responsibility for improving methodological quality of TPA studies, taking advantage of the resources provided by the THEME program. KEYWORDS systematic review, PRISMA guidelines, T-pattern, TPA, THEME, mixed methods Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 1. Introduction framework of observational methodology (Anguera, 1979, 2003; Anguera et al., 2019, 2021) in comparison to other methodological approaches. The second methodological point that singularizes this 1.1. Toward a systematic review focused study is that it places it in the crossroads of systematic review and on methodology mixed methods. Throughout the remainder of the introduction, we will both summarize the framework derived from the interaction The systematic review is a special type of literature review between the systematic review and mixed methods, and also justify that confers added advantages, characterized by being “methodical, the interest of this systematic review of T-patterns. comprehensive, transparent, and replicable” (Siddaway et al., 2019, p. 751), and its use in decision making has rendered it extremely effective, especially given the significant increase in scientific literature (Anderson et al., 2013). The general requirement of 1.2. The systematic review from mixed the systematic review is to obtain a comprehensive synthesis of methods evidence (Higgins and Green, 2011). The great advantage of systematic reviews, within their In previous works we have dealt with the relevance of mixed plurality, is that they enable the researcher to summarize many methods, specifically how observational studies —both direct works that have a common nexus —specified as the focus— and (Anguera and Hernández-Mendo, 2016; Anguera et al., 2017a) and to organize scientific evidence (Pluye et al., 2016). The expression indirect observation (Anguera et al., 2017b, 2018; Anguera, 2020)— systematic review was popularized in the 1990s, and its main can be considered mixed-method in themselves. defining feature is that it uses explicit criteria and procedures Over the last few years there has been an exponential growth to identify, critically assess and synthesize relevant literature. As in scientific literature relating to mixed methods, which is also Greenhalgh points out (Greenhalgh, 1997, p. 672): “A systematic undeniably relevant within the systematic review as well as in review is an overview of primary studies which contains an explicit other types of synthesizing research evidence. Systematic reviews statement of objectives, materials and methods and has been have traditionally shown a preference for quantitative evidence conducted according to explicit and reproducible methodology.” (Hong et al., 2017), but interest in qualitative evidence has grown One of the challenges of the systematic review that Hawker et al. progressively, especially in: the integrative review (Whittemore and (2002) perceived at the beginning of this century, was the inclusion Knafl, 2005), mixed-method review (Harden and Thomas, 2005), of evidence from different perspectives and methodologies; and mixed-method research synthesis (Heyvaert et al., 2016), mixed their intention was to create a database that would serve as a research synthesis (Sandelowski et al., 2006), and mixed studies resource for other researchers. We too are equally interested in review (Pluye et al., 2009; Pluye and Hong, 2014). As Hong et al. combining the advantages of the conventional systematic review (2017) reaffirm, these reviews enable a greater understanding of with a methodological approach, as we have demonstrated in quantitative evidence, of qualitative evidence, and a corroboration previous works (Sarmento et al., 2018; Preciado et al., 2019, 2021; of the knowledge obtained from both. Alarcón-Espinoza et al., 2022; Tronchoni et al., 2022), thus going Quantitative output is based on the numerical values of deeper into methodological development. variables or dimensions and on the results of statistical analysis, Scientific literature contains mainly systematic reviews that whilst it is considered qualitative when data is interpreted or have focused on substantial aspects, but there are also approaches summarized to generate outputs such as concepts, categories that have combined both substantial and methodological aspects or theories. However, the distinction between qualitative and (Durach et al., 2017), which is our preferred option since we quantitative analysis is not clear, particularly since the interest believe it undeniably adds value. As Smalborne and Quinton (2011) in continuum between quantitative and qualitative poles has affirm, systematic reviews in turn create an analytical framework for been gaining ground (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2011; Anguera, analyzing primary data, and our commitment is to consolidating 2022). the methodological analysis of the selected works. In this sense, we can affirm the existence of a wide range In this sense, Hong and Pluye (2019) consider that by taking of possibilities. Considering there are no quantitative methods methodological aspects into account, new challenges arise in that do not imply qualitative elements in some stages of the relation with how to carry out a critical assessment of the selected process (Chang et al., 2009; Sandelowski, 2014), nor research primary documents, and which differ from the methodologies used that is “inherently quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method” (Harden and Thomas, 2005). In order to tackle this challenge, it (Newman and Hitchcock, 2011, p. 382), and “radical middle point” is necessary to delve deeper into the understanding of primary (Onwuegbuzie, 2012, p. 210) stands out. This represents an added document profiles with a view to synthesizing and integrating value which opens the MIXED space (M: Methodological thinker; the evidence contained in them (Hong et al., 2017); while Hong I: Integrative, integrated, and integral researcher; X: Xenophilous and Pluye (2019) suggest using critical appraisal, which has been researcher; E: Empower; D: Development) that will mesh with successful in systematic reviews over the last few years (Katrak et al., the mixed analysis crossover (Onwuegbuzie and Johnson, 2021) 2004; Bai et al., 2012). where the analyses of the primary documents can be found, and This systematic review arises from the desire to carry out which reaffirms the continuum between qualitative and quantitative a transparent synthesis study (Smalborne and Quinton, 2011) elements rather than the opposition. focusing on the common nexus in methodological aspects that Over the last few years interesting advances have been made cuts across two points. The main point is the review of the relating to qualitative and quantitative evidence review, centered use of T-pattern detection, exploring their application within the both on quality (Pluye et al., 2009; Crowe and Sheppard, 2011; Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 Sirriyeh et al., 2012) and on the integration of evidence (Dixon- As a Mixed Methods approach, T-pattern analysis (TPA) passes Woods et al., 2004; Mays et al., 2005; Tricco et al., 2016), at the same repeatedly between qualitative and quantitative analyses, from time that new modalities of synthesis have been proposed (Hong data collection logging the occurrences of qualities (categories) et al., 2017). and their real-time (quantitative) locations resulting in time- Heyvaert et al. (2013) illustrate how mixed methods contribute stamped data, here T-data, to the detection of T-patterns to the integration of qualitative and quantitative research in terms (qualities) [. . .], typically followed by both qualitative and of synthesis. On a primary level, the researcher collects qualitative quantitative analyses of the detected patterns. and quantitative data from the participants (interviews, systematic observation, surveys, etc.), combining them in a study; whilst in terms of synthesis, the systematic review applies the principles of mixed-method research, coming together in mixed methods research synthesis (MMRS). Even though the scientific literature 1.3. The interest of a systematic review of about mixed methods on a primary level is exponential, much T-patterns less attention has been paid to the possibilities of integration on a synthesis level (Sandelowski et al., 2006; Dellinger and Leech, The research question undoubtedly determines the structure 2007; Voils et al., 2008); although different terms have been coined and reach of the systematic review, and needs to be clearly defined to refer to ways of synthesizing empirical evidence (Heyvaert (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013). et al., 2013); such as systematic review, integrative review, research Our reasons for focusing on T-pattern analysis are as follows: synthesis, realist synthesis, qualitative review, narrative review, meta- (a) The relevance of an analysis centered on the description analysis. and detection of complex real-time patterns, which provides Prior to the implementation of the mixed methods research unsubstitutable analytical resources to psychological research; (b) synthesis (MMRS) modality (Harden and Thomas, 2010; Heyvaert the scientific community has at its disposal the computer program et al., 2013), historically two main approaches to synthesis studies THEME, which, almost in its 7th version, and an academic version had been developed which highlighted the systematic review as a freely available for number of years; and (c) its extremely high qualitative modality, and meta-analysis as a quantitative modality. applicability in the fields of psychology (Agliati et al., 2005; Diana In the last few years there has been a growing interest et al., 2018 -primary document 37-; Portell et al., 2019 -primary in synthesizing evidence derived from studies with differing document 90-), sport (Lapresa et al., 2013a -primary document designs, and with qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method 69-; Castañer et al., 2016 -primary document 30-; Amatria et al., approaches. Similarly, there have been methodological advances 2017 -primary document 6-), ethology (Kerepesi et al., 2006 - in the integration of qualitative and quantitative evidence (Hong primary document 66-; Jonsson et al., 2010), health (Blanchet et al., 2017), along with those relating to the quality of primary et al., 2005 -primary document 66-; Haynal-Reymond et al., 2005; documents (Pluye et al., 2009; Crowe and Sheppard, 2011; Sirriyeh Arias-Pujol and Anguera, 2020 -primary document 10-), education et al., 2012). (Suárez et al., 2018 -primary document 111-; Terrenghi et al., 2019; Within the framework of primary studies that form the basis Escolano-Pérez, 2020 -primary document 39-), etc., regardless of of systematic reviews, we find qualitative data (observational the methodology used, whether it be observational (Gutiérrez- records, interview transcripts, diverse documents, etc.), with Santiago et al., 2011 -primary document 53-; Escolano-Pérez the predictable aim of adequately interpreting the proposals et al., 2019 -primary document 40-; Terroba et al., 2021 -primary of the actors involved. Nevertheless, there are essentially two document 116-) or experimental (Hocking et al., 2007 -primary main problems that may arise, depending on the level of document 58-; Casarrubea et al., 2015), and the scale, from micro abstraction. On the one hand there is the analysis of patterns of (Hirschenhauser et al., 2002; Nicol et al., 2015) to macro (Koch simultaneous occurrence or lack of co-occurrence —if the risk of et al., 2005). disaggregation is not avoided— that would imply transforming The T-pattern project began in 1970 in the field of ethology multi-dimensionality into one-dimensionality (Sivesind, 1999), (Magnusson, 1981), studying social interaction and organization thus impoverishing the batch information by reducing the length in insects and primates, including humans, inspired by the of the event-types in THEME, which is at the core of this work of Lorenz, von Frisch and Tinbergen. Throughout the research. decades since then, Magnusson (1975, 1978, 1981, 1996, 2000, The connection between phases plays a crucial role in 2005, 2006, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020a,b; Magnusson et al., 2016) integration, and has recently been ratified by Pluye et al. (2018). has worked unceasingly on the definition and mathematical We propose to adopt quantitizing, schematized in QUAL-QUAN- development of T-patterns, or temporal patterns, as well as on QUAL (Anguera et al., 2020), as a guide for the methodological the construction of the necessary algorithms. A T-Pattern is analysis of primary documents in this systematic review. This defined as the structure formed by a series of events that take allows us to move upwards in the integration typical of place concurrently or sequentially with greater frequency than mixed methods on a synthesis level, tying in assimilation and would randomly be expected if all the events were independently configuration on the one hand, and dimensionality and case distributed. These events —that in observational methodology aggregation on the other. terms we shall call multi-events (Bakeman and Quera, 1996)— Given that this systematic review of T-pattern detection has occur in the same order, maintaining temporal distances between been carried out from a mixed-method approach, it is worth them that remain invariant, or at least relatively, with respect to mentioning the words of Magnusson (2020a, p. 2): the null hypothesis that each event is independent and randomly Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 distributed temporally (Magnusson, 1996, 2000). According to T-system (T-Bursts, T-Markers, T-Predictors, T-Retrodictors, ±T- Magnusson (2000, pp. 94–95), when THEME detects an occurrence Associates, T-Packets, and T-Composition), because publications of “A” followed by “B” within a critical interval, it generates a regarding these figures are still scarce and so it will be a future aim, simple T-pattern (AB). Occurrences of simple T-patterns become although a systematic review of some of these figures has already events, which are then treated as initial event-types at the been carried out (Sáiz-Manzanares et al., 2022). subsequent detection level. Theme repeats this process, level by Having demonstrated the interest contained in this study, the level (from 1 to n) in search of critical interval relationships aim is to carry out a systematic review of T-Pattern detection, featuring T-patterns detected in previous levels. Accordingly, all focused particularly from a methodological perspective. T-patterns, Q = X1 X2 . . . Xm , can be divided into at least two events within a critical interval. In other words QLeft [d1,d2] QRight; QLeft and QRight can be part of a more complex 2. Materials and methods T-pattern X1. . .Xm expressed as the terminals of a binary-tree. In other words, critical interval relationships may be detected The bibliographical search was carried out in the following between a simple T-pattern (AB) and an event-type K, giving databases: SCOPUS, PsycINFO of the American Psychological rise to a level-2 T-pattern with three events [(AB)K] or (see Association, and Web of Science of Clarivate Analytics (WOS), Figure 1) between two simple T-patterns (AB) and (CD), giving in line with PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for rise to a more complex level-2 T-pattern with four events Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) (Liberati et al., 2009; [(AB)(CD)]. Moher et al., 2009; Siddaway et al., 2019; Page et al., 2021). The The essence of a T-pattern project is the discovery of search was performed in title, keywords and abstract; and the hidden structures from the critical interval between point series general search syntax was: “THEME” AND (“T-Patterns” OR “T with respect to the temporal dimension; thus revealing itself Patterns”). to be a highly valuable analytical instrument which, at the The following inclusion criteria were used, which enabled the same time, entails a permanent dialogue with the respective application of the corresponding filters: (a) A period from 2000 conceptual framework. to 2022; (b) articles published in scientific journals; (c) empirical The basic premise of T-pattern detection is that the interactive studies; (d) the thematic areas of Psychology, Behavioral Sciences, flow, or chain of behaviors, consists of structures of variable and Sport Sciences; (e) English or Spanish languages; (f) access stability that can be visualized through the detection of underlying to the whole text (open access, access through the institutions of T-patterns (Suárez et al., 2018 -primary document 111-; Portell authors, or purchase). et al., 2019 -primary document 90-; Arias-Pujol and Anguera, 2020 The following exclusion criteria were taken into account: (a) -primary document 10-; Santoyo et al., 2020 -primary document Documents whose content did not conform to either THEME or 105-). It is not easily visible nature increases its potential for T-patterns (these terms were used in a different sense to that defined discovery, given that the researcher’s interest lies in being able to in the previous sections); (b) document published with a double extract the internal structure that shows the key to the occurring work codification: as if it were articles in the journal Neuromethods behavior (Arbulu et al., 2016). One great advantage of T-pattern and book chapter, but are in fact chapters of the work of Magnusson detection lies in the fact that it is not constrained by implicit et al. (2016); and (c) articles that focus on T-patterns and THEME, suppositions about the distribution of studied behaviors; and it but are conceptual-methodological in nature and not empirical enables the selection of minimum number of occurrences and studies nor systematic reviews. significance level –among other parameters– thus aiming to achieve In addition, the references of the first sample of papers were a clear control over random discoveries. reviewed in order to request new articles that could meet the The relevance that interest in T-pattern detection has gained, criteria indicated. along with the applicability it has shown in the last few years The included works were reviewed in order to codify: (1) justify this systematic review, whose intention is to highlight general extrinsic characteristics; (2) bibliometric aspects related to its possibilities and contribute to a better understanding of this recognition within the scientific community; (3) methodological analytical technique. We will not include a systematic review of the characteristics considering three levels of codification. Those FIGURE 1 T-pattern detection (Magnusson, 2000, p. 95), with permission of the author. Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 levels of codification were as follows: (3.1) identify the method research field, and sub-field. It provides a broader view of this explicitly declared by the authors in order to identify the studies scientific production along with highlighting some aspects of it. based on observational methodology; (3.2) when the paper used Publication date (Figure 3) illustrates an increase from 2010, observational methodology, the main aspect link to the T-pattern after some anecdotal years, showing a succession of peaks and analysis is codified based on Guidelines Reporting Evaluations troughs since then, which, in any case, justifies a consolidation in based on Observational Methodology GREOM (Portell et al., 2015); the use of T-pattern detection analysis. (3.3) in all the papers that characterize the THEME parameters used We quantified the number of authors from each publication, to detect T-patterns. and Figure 4 shows the authors’ provenance. Most notably, Spain The review of each article was carried out independently by two stands out, with three hundred and forty-two primary documents, researchers. The degree of initial agreement was calculated with the well ahead of Italy (65), Portugal (51), and Iceland (31). Cohen’s kappa coefficient (κ = 0.96). In terms of the substantive scope (Figure 5), sport is significantly striking, and it has been applied successfully to different sports modalities. Other less prominent fields of study 3. Results were animal behavior, physical activity, school, and health. 3.2.2. Bibliometric characteristics of the primary 3.1. Study selection documents Supplementary Table 3 presents the bibliometric Figure 2 presents the PRISMA diagram (Page et al., 2021) that characteristics of the primary documents, with the following shows the selection process of the 125 primary documents that information: code, authors, database, journal, impact factor, make up this systematic review (see Supplementary Table 1). quartile (in accordance with the Web of Science), and quotations. As previously indicated in the Section “2. Materials and methods,” the primary documents were taken from the SCOPUS, 3.2. Primary document profile PsycINFO, and WOS databases, in addition to other sources (28 documents, therefore 22.4%) which were accessed from references. The selected primary documents are of diverse descriptive We believe it interesting that thirty-seven primary documents criteria which we will address here with a view to better clarifying (29.6%) were found in the three databases simultaneously their characteristics. (Figure 6). Given our interest in the scientific quality of the primary 3.2.1. Extrinsic characteristics of the primary documents, we considered it relevant to know whether or not documents the respective journals —in the years that the documents were Supplementary Table 2 shows the extrinsic characteristics of published— were included in Web of Science. A total of sixty-six the primary documents, and includes information corresponding articles (52.8%) has an impact factor, with a clear majority of the to: code, authors, number of authors, country of origin, year, primary documents (26) being found in quartile 2 (Figure 7). FIGURE 2 PRISMA diagram. Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 FIGURE 3 Distribution of primary documents by years. FIGURE 4 Authors’ countries. 3.2.3. Methodological characteristics of the regarding it as mixed-method in itself. Similarly, we have witnessed primary documents [I]: Data collection, the same scenario in indirect observation studies (Anguera et al., management, data quality control, computer 2018). programs, and data analysis In Supplementary Table 4 we have included information Supplementary Table 4 shows part of the methodological corresponding to the design, when indicated, which was in 68% characteristics of the primary documents, providing information of the primary documents. Furthermore, 95.2% of the primary about: codes, authors, methodology, design, participants, documents specified participant characteristics. The percentage of ethical standards, instrument for collecting data, and number primary documents that mention ethical standards is lower, at 52%. dimensions/categories. In terms of data collection, it is explicitly mentioned in 88% It seems evident that the most repeatedly applied methodology of the primary documents. Due to observational methodology is observational, whether alone (93), or in multi-method studies, being the most widely applied, there is logically an abundance— in which it is complemented with experimental (6), or with quasi- experimental (5), or with interview (1) (see Figure 8). It is curious 84.8%— of made-to-measure (ad hoc) instruments. Many of them that in 6 primary documents the mixed method is explicitly named have been given proper names (SOBL-2, SOCIN, SOPROX, SCOT, as the methodology to be applied. Based on previous developments SOF5, SOBJUDO-KSGA, OSMOS, SOFEO, SOFCO, ADDEF, OI- (Anguera and Hernández-Mendo, 2016; Anguera et al., 2017a), we INJURIES-FOOTBALL, OTSJUDO, IOUPPERLIMB_FLEX_EXT, consider that the application of observational methodology implies OBKA, SINCROBS, ESGRIMOBS, SORPS) or have used an existing Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 FIGURE 5 Field. FIGURE 6 Database. proper name (SOF, SOBL, SOFBAS, SOCTM, SsObserWork). The the search syntax, it was obviously used in all the primary studies; number of dimensions/categories is very heterogeneous. however not all the primary documents specified which of the The methodological characteristics of the primary documents different versions of THEME, available since the year 2000, were are completed in Supplementary Table 5, including information used. Among the 31.2% of primary documents who did mention it, about computer recording programs, data quality control and the the versions used were: THEME 5.0, THEME 6.0, and THEME Edu. computer programs used, computer programs for data analysis, It is clear that T-pattern detection can be complemented with and data analysis. other analysis techniques, as is shown in Supplementary Table 5 In terms of recording programs, whilst being secondary to and Figure 9; this being the chosen option for seventy primary the aims in this systematic review, out of the a hundred-three documents, notably with the following: χ2 (11.2%), lag sequential studies that specified it, what stands out is the use of LINCE/LINCE analysis (11.2%), and descriptive analysis (7.2%). PLUS, in 41.6% of the primary documents (records can be directly exported to THEME), whilst the percentage for MATCH VISION 3.2.4. Methodological characteristics of the STUDIO was 15.2%. primary documents (II): T-pattern detection Seventy-two primary documents included data quality This forms the study core of this systematic review, which control programs, with the majority using GSEQ (48.6%) and focuses precisely on T-pattern detection (Supplementary Table 6). LINCE/LINCE PLUS (33.3%). We are especially interested in knowing how the primary The use of THEME is inevitable for T-Pattern detection, since document search parameters were set. In accordance with the it is the only program that allows it. Given that THEME was part of Reference Manual Pattern Vision Ltd (2018), decisions are required Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 FIGURE 7 Quartils (from 66 articles). FIGURE 8 Methodology. about: Critical Interval Type, Baseline Probability Type, Minimum typical of each database (Wedl et al., 2011 -primary document 123- Occurrences, Burst Detection, Significance Level, Max Search is 5); selection of free heuristic critical interval setting (Pic et al., Levels, Lumping Factor, Exclude Frequent Event Types (Events), 2021 -primary document 89-); or “minimum sample,” which can Minimum Samples. However, there are no published studies that vary greatly depending on the study [is 51 in Casarrubea et al. include information about all of them. (2011) -primary document 25-; 100 in Wedl et al. (2011) -primary Firstly, information was collected regarding the Minimum document 123-]. Occurrences (with a minimum value of 2) (see Figure 10), with The number of selected T-Patterns is highly heterogeneous in 59.2% of the primary documents containing this information. the primary documents. Given that some primary documents (22.4%) take into In terms of T-pattern selection (15.2% of the studies), account redundancy reduction (FARR) (the recommended value the existing options are quantitative, qualitative and structural; is 90%), it is included in Supplementary Table 6. Furthermore, moreover, in one of the primary documents (Amatria et al., 2017 randomization is recommended in order to know whether the -primary document 6-) there is a proposal for qualitative and detected T-patterns deviate significantly from random expectation. quantitative filters that was taken into account in later works. The types of randomization offered by THEME that some primary A massive 92% of the primary documents present results, documents do mention (28%) are: shuffling, rotation, and shuffling and we have included basic information. Among the results, and rotation. We did not include the following parameters in the 15 use tables, 29 use figures, 47 use tables and figures, 10 use table: Minimum samples, or FARR, which usually adopts a standard tables and figures with incorporated photographs, 1 uses figures value of 99 but in some primary documents is different (Wedl with diagrams, 1 uses figures with drawings, and 1 uses tables et al., 2011 -primary document 123- is 90); levels of hierarchy, with photographs. Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 FIGURE 9 Data analysis. FIGURE 10 Minimum occurrences. 4. Discussion and conclusion T-pattern detection and analysis (TPA). Several recently published papers have addressed the concepts and examples concerning the The discovery of hidden patterns in behavior is a task frequently applications of TPA in the study of behavior both in human and faced by numerous researchers across many investigation areas, non-human subjects (Casarrubea et al., 2015, 2018, 2022), that e.g., biology, psychology, psychiatry, sport science, robotics, could, together with this systematic review, assist beginners in TPA finances, etc. But discovering such patterns has proven to be methodology striving to gain an overview of TPA research. a challenging task due to a lack of three key matters: first of We highlight the relevance of T-pattern detection in the all, adequate formalized models of the kinds of patterns to look broad spectrum of fields and sub-fields covered in this systematic for; secondly, corresponding detection algorithms and, last but review. The detection of structures in behavioral records forms the not least, their implementation in available software. Over the common nexus between studies carried out in very diverse variants last decades, these obstacles have been progressively overcome and fields; whether it be from human participants (with highly as a result of the introduction of the mathematical T-pattern diversified characteristics, in very different contexts, and analyzing model and the continued improvement of a technique known as the relationship with behavior, hormone levels, personality, culture, Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 etc.); or animals (dogs, cats, rats, starlings, chickens. . .); or in or an attacking tactic in soccer, or a basketball shot), and show studies about the interaction between hormones and behavior; or efficient-type sequential examples. from movements involved in an individual’s facial expressions, to Similarly, we would like to highlight that T-pattern detection extensive migratory movements in the marine environment. has been successfully used to differentiate individuals with A necessary demarcation, as we have justified since our seminal stereotypes or atypical behavior (Brilot et al., 2009 -primary work on observational methodology, is the difference between the document 14-), as well as certain profiles of psychiatric patients. use of observation as a method or as a technique (Anguera, 1979, Some primary documents (Burgoon et al., 2014 -primary 2003). This difference is well-illustrated in the papers reviewed. document 15-) do not only emphasize that T-pattern detection They are mainly works that use observation as a method, although confirms the regularities that show up in behavioral sequences, but T-pattern detection is also used in experimental studies carried they also highlight the role of THEME in discovering patterns that out in laboratories, in which observation plays a merely technical remain “hidden.” Ultimately, the strength of T-pattern detection role. One cornerstone element is the observation of visually — lies in its ability to localize the connections between temporally or even acoustically— perceptible events or behaviors, that are related events —although not necessarily contiguous— with the nearly always organized in clusters, and which on many occasions aim of identifying combinations of behaviors that make up a correspond to interactive situations. pattern-type structure. Regarding the type of observational design used by studies We consider it relevant —due to the possibilities it presents— that apply THEME (I/P/U, I/P/M, I/F/U, I/F/M, N/P/U, that in different primary documents (Lapresa et al., 2013b -primary N/F/M) —these initials correspond, respectively, to the document 69-; Tarragó et al., 2015 -primary document 113-) a observational designs Idiographic/Punctual/Unidimensional, Idiographic/Punctual/Multidimensional, Idiographic/Follow- constant duration (=1) was conventionally assigned to each event- up/Unidimensional/, Idiographic/Follow-up/Multidimensional, type, using the THEME program v.6 Edu for the detection of Nomothetic/Punctual/Unidimensional, and Nomothetic/Follow- regular structures; bearing in mind that the importance of the up/Multidimensional- (Anguera et al., 2001; Sánchez-Algarra analysis does not lie in the duration of each one of the behavior and Anguera, 2013), it is interesting to highlight that the design chains, nor in the distance between them, but precisely in their is multidimensional in every case (although in two of them the internal sequentiality. authors define it as one-dimensional). This is consistent with the Likewise, we highlight the importance of the qualitative and interest in the use of THEME for the analysis of concurrences, quantitative filters proposed by Amatria et al. (2017) (-primary not only between behaviors but also between behaviors and document 6-), that were taken into account in some of the primary other elements within the context. There is more variability documents (Amatria et al., 2019 -primary document 7-; Lapresa in the other two characteristics of the observational design— et al., 2018 -primary document 73-). idiographic/nomothetic and punctual/follow-up. One element that In many of the primary documents, the T-pattern detection should be taken into account is that in cases where the design was complemented by other analysis techniques, and this includes just one session, it is intra-sessional monitoring that is complementarity is considered recommendable, as indicated in analyzed with THEME. Lapresa et al. (2018) (-primary document 73-), for various reasons. Due to our interest in the methodological aspects that we feel Said reasons are as follows: (a) Lag sequential analysis identifies enrich a systematic review, we are aware that in this particular relationships between individual events that make up a multi-event review there are primary documents of varying quality, as can be (Bakeman and Quera, 2011), whilst THEME is able to identify seen in Supplementary Tables 3–6. For this reason we decided to significant relationships between multi-events, or clusters (Tarragó find out the impact indexes of those which have it (Supplementary et al., 2017 -primary document 114-); (b) Although THEME (v.6 Table 3), with a view to identifying those primary documents which Edu) detects a negative gravity or repulsion zone in the calculations, are formally considered of better quality. it can only generate an inhibiting T-taboo structure (Magnusson, Whilst THEME appears to be sensitive to low frequency 2000, 2005) when the taboo behavior does not occur. We have T-patterns, the greatest challenge for the researcher lies in not found any studies in which T-taboos have been investigated interpreting the results. In most of the studies not all the T-patterns in THEME (v.6 Edu), although they are relatively common in are interpreted, although there are primary studies in which they lag sequential analysis studies based on inhibiting relationships are interpreted in terms of their growing length (number of (Tarragó et al., 2017 -primary document 114-). successive codes implicated). We would also like to underline that in the primary While the main contribution of the THEME program is the detection of temporal patterns, it is also possible to detect documents containing other T-pattern detection techniques, there regular and hidden behavioral patterns depending on the order is agreement that THEME detected more T-patterns than the parameter; and from the assignation of a constant duration to each regularities detected by other analyses (Alonso-Vega et al., unit of behavior, which supposes new possibilities for sequential 2022-primarydocument 1-), and, at least, was maintained in one data analysis (Lapresa et al., 2013a,b). There are a number of significant correlation (Brilot et al., 2009 -primary document 14-). prominent studies (Alsasua et al., 2018 -primary document 3-; Some primary documents (Brilot et al., 2009 -primary Amatria et al., 2019 -primary document 7-; Alsasua et al., 2021 document 14-) consider it difficult to validate T-pattern detection -primary document 2-) in which T-pattern selection is carried when there is a large quantity of data, and their recommendation out in accordance with multi-events that show a sequence of in these cases is a statistical comparison with random data, consecutive behaviors which make up a specific action. These are with the aim of achieving an objective confirmation of T-pattern identified by the T-patterns themselves (for example, a shot on goal significance. Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org Anguera et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1085980 There five primary documents that were considered atypical and quantitative data, multiple case development, and synthesis (Asher et al., 2009 -primary document 12-; Jonsson et al., 2010 - review as main axis for an innovative future in physical primary document 63-; Casarrubea et al., 2018 -primary document activity and sports research [PGC2018-098742-B-C31] (2019-2021) 24-; Hunyadi, 2019 -primary document 59-; Szekrényes, 2019 - (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Programa primary document 112-), due to them consisting of brief references Estatal de Generación de Conocimiento y Fortalecimiento to different studies. Científico y Tecnológico del Sistema I + D + i), that was There are three main conclusions that can be drawn from this part of the coordinated project New approach of research systematic review: in physical activity and sport from mixed methods perspective Firstly, there is the extraordinary strength and applicability of (NARPAS_MM) [SPGC201800 × 098742CV0]. Also, all authors T-pattern detection. This enables the researcher to go deeper into a gratefully acknowledged the support of a Spanish government robust analysis, which satisfies the integration of the qualitative and project Integración entre datos observacionales y datos provenientes quantitative elements that make up the mixed methods leitmotif ; de sensores externos: Evolución del software LINCE PLUS y thus enabling the discovery of the deep, hidden structure that lies desarrollo de la aplicación móvil para la optimización del deporte beneath the respective databases, regardless of the methodology y la actividad física beneficiosa para la salud [EXP_74847] (2023), used in the study they come from. The diverse possibilities that exist Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte, Consejo Superior de Deporte in parameter assignation notably increase the options for obtaining and y Unión Europea. In addition, MTA, JLL, and MP thank the results and for their interpretation. support of the Generalitat de Catalunya Research Group, Grup Secondly, there is the greater presence of T-pattern analysis de Recerca i Innovació en Dissenys (GRID), Tecnología i aplicació (TPA) in studies using observational methodology, relative to the multimedia i digital als dissenys observacionals [Grant number use of this technique when other research methods are used. 2021 SGR 00718] (2022–2024). Moreover, EE-P acknowledges Thirdly, as systematic reviews can create a framework for the support of the Aragon Government Research Group (Grupo analyzing primary data, we musts commit to consolidating de Investigación de Referencia Educación y Diversidad) and the the methodological analysis of selected works as well, as Department of Psychology and Sociology of the University of taking individual and collective responsibility for improving Zaragoza. methodological quality of TPA studies, taking advantage of the resources provided by the THEME program. At the heart of TPA is a pattern detection algorithm that has been in use in number of different scientific fields for over 30 years, were future Conflict of interest improvements will deliver more advanced display of results, data import/export, parallel processing, and faster pattern detection. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Data availability statement The original contributions presented in this study are included Publisher’s note in this article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the Author contributions reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and endorsed by the publisher. intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. Supplementary material Funding The Supplementary Material for this article can be found All authors gratefully acknowledged the support of a Spanish online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023. government sub-project Integration ways between qualitative 1085980/full#supplementary-material References Agliati, A., Vescovo, A., and Anolli, L. (2005). “Conversation patterns in Icelandic Alarcón-Espinoza, M., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Anguera, M. T., Samper García, and Italian people: Similarities and differences in rhythm and accommodation,” in The P., and Chacón-Moscoso, S. (2022). Emotional self-regulation in everyday hidden structure of interaction: from neurons to culture patterns, eds L. S. Anolli, S. life: A systematic review. Front. Psychol. 13:884756. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.8 Duncan Jr., M. S. Magnusson, and G. 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