European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-023-01684-0 REVIEW Diseases of Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) Marta Valldeperes1,2 · Paloma Prieto Yerro3,4 · Jorge Ramón López‑Olvera1,2 · Paulino Fandos5 · Santiago Lavín1,2 · Ramón C. Soriguer Escofet6 · Gregorio Mentaberre2,7 · Francisco Javier Cano‑Manuel León8 · José Espinosa9 · Arián Ráez‑Bravo1,2 · Jesús M. Pérez2,4,10 · Stefania Tampach1,2 · Josep Estruch1,2 · Roser Velarde1,2 · José Enrique Granados2,4,11 Received: 31 January 2023 / Revised: 3 February 2023 / Accepted: 2 May 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) is an ecologically and economically relevant medium-sized emblematic mountain ungulate. Diseases participate in the population dynamics of the species as a regulating agent, but can also threaten the conservation and viability of vulnerable population units. Moreover, Iberian ibex can also be a carrier or even a reservoir of pathogens shared with domestic animals and/or humans, being therefore a concern for livestock and public health. The objective of this review is to compile the currently available knowledge on (1) diseases of Iberian ibex, presented according to their relevance on the health and demography of free-ranging populations; (2) diseases subjected to heath surveillance plans; (3) other dis- eases reported in the species; and (4) diseases with particular relevance in captive Iberian ibex populations. The systematic review of all the information on diseases affecting the species unveils unpublished reports, scientific communications in meetings, and scientific articles, allowing the first comprehensive compilation of Iberian ibex diseases. This review identi- fies the gaps in knowledge regarding pathogenesis, immune response, diagnostic methods, treatment, and management of diseases in Iberian ibex, providing a base for future research. Moreover, this challenges wildlife and livestock disease and wildlife population managers to assess the priorities and policies currently implemented in Iberian ibex health surveillance and monitoring and disease management. Keywords Disease · Epidemiology · Iberian ibex · Management · Pathogens · Sarcoptic mange Introduction micro- and macroparasites, and congenital defects, alone or combined (Wobeser 1994). Wildlife can share diseases Disease can be defined as damage or deterioration affect- with humans, known as zoonoses, as well as with domestic ing normal functions, including responses to extrinsic and animals. Thus, wildlife diseases are relevant for human and intrinsic factors such as nutrition, climate, toxic agents, 7 * Jorge Ramón López‑Olvera Departament de Ciència Animal, Universitat de Lleida, elrebeco@yahoo.es; Jordi.Lopez.Olvera@uab.cat 25198 Lleida, Spain 8 1 Junta de Andalucía, Departamento de Actuaciones en el Servei d’Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge (SEFaS), Medio Natural, Av. Joaquina Eguaras 2, 18013 Granada, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain Bellaterra, Spain 9 2 Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria Wildlife Ecology & Health Group (WE&H), Barcelona, and Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC‑ULE), Spain Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain 3 Parque Natural de las Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las 10 Department of Animal and Plant Biology, and Ecology, Jaén Villas, C/ Martínez Falero 11, 23470, Cazorla, Jaén, Spain University, Campus Las Lagunillas, 23071 Jaén, Spain 4 Grupo de Investigación RNM 118. Biología de Especies 11 Parque Nacional y Parque Natural de Sierra Cinegéticas y Plagas, Jaén, Spain Nevada. Ctra., Antigua de Sierra Nevada Km 7, Pinos Genil, 5 C/Ocaña 44 2° D, 28047 Madrid, Spain 18191 Granada, Spain 6 Estación Biológica de Doñana (CSIC), Av. Américo Vespucio sn, 41092 Sevilla, Spain 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 63 Page 2 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 domestic livestock health, since wildlife can act as a disease varieties, which are morphologically undistinguishable although reservoir, but they are also a matter of concern for wildlife they have high host specificity and low capacity of cross-infection conservation, particularly in endangered species or popula- (Fain 1968, 1978; Pence et al. 1975; Arlian et al. 1984b; Walton tions (Gortázar et al. 2007, 2016; Cunningham et al. 2017). et al. 1999; Zahler et al. 1999; Pence and Ueckermann 2002; Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) is a medium-sized moun- Rasero et al. 2010). Additionally, within each taxon, geographic tain ungulate, formerly endemic to the Iberian Peninsula differences can also be found (Berrilli et al. 2002). but recently introduced in the northern Pyrenees in France Despite such specificity, interspecific transmission of (Manceau et al. 1999; Granados et al. 2001; Pérez et al. 2002; S. scabiei has been reported within the same taxon among Acevedo and Cassinello 2009; Alados and Escós 2017; Garnier domestic and wild species both for ungulates and carnivores 2021). Although two of the four subspecies originally described (Kutzer 1966; Samuel 1981; Ibrahim and Abu-Samra 1987; are extinct, most of the Iberian ibex evolutionary significant León-Vizcaíno et al. 1992; Lavín et al. 2000a; Menzano et al. units and populations are currently expanding and spreading or 2007; Valldeperes et al. 2021). Cross-transmission related to at least stable (Granados et al. 2001; Pérez et al. 2002; Acevedo predation and scavenging with the establishment of specific and Cassinello 2009; Alados and Escós 2017). However, some predator/scavenger-prey cycles has also been documented ibex populations are vulnerable to risk factors that threaten (Gakuya et al. 2011; Oleaga et al. 2011; Matsuyama et al. their viability and conservation, including habitat alteration and 2019). Being a zoonotic disease, cross-transmission between fragmentation, inadequate management, overabundance, low humans and different animal species also occurs, either genetic diversity, competition with domestic and wild ungu- directly or mediated through domestic animals, especially lates, human disturbance, and diseases (Manceau et al. 1999; pets (Arlian et al. 1984b; Morsy et al. 1994; Mitra et al. 1995; Pérez et al. 2002; Acevedo and Cassinello 2009). On the other Menzano et al. 2004; Walton and Currie 2007; Rentería Solís hand, the expansion of this species increases the risk of direct or et al. 2014; Pisano et al. 2019; Moroni et al. 2022b). Never- indirect transmission of pathogens with other wild and domestic theless, such interspecific transmissions among hosts from animals and/or humans (Gortázar et al. 2007, 2016; Lawson different taxa are usually self-limited both in the individual et al. 2021). host and in the population and thus do not lead to outbreaks Research and reviews on wildlife diseases, conservation, or demographic consequences. On the other hand, although and management are required (Illarietti et al. 2023). The they usually act as dead-end hosts, these temporal host spe- objective of this review is to compile the currently avail- cies could be relevant as parasite reservoirs for the original able knowledge on diseases of Iberian ibex. The diseases are natural host species (Menzano et al. 2004; Rossi et al. 2007). presented in order of relevance, dealing first with those with Sarcoptic mange is an emerging panzootic in wildlife, proven disease, epizootic, and/or mortality effects on free- reported in up to 148 domestic and wild animal mammal spe- ranging Iberian ibex populations (“Infectious diseases caus- cies, including humans, causing wildlife population declines ing disease and mortality in Iberian ibex populations” sec- and livestock economic losses (Pence and Ueckermann 2002; tion) and then the diseases included in the Spanish national Walton et al. 2004; Escobar et al. 2022). Among the wild wildlife health surveillance program (Lawson et al. 2021; host species, the effect of sarcoptic mange has been dramatic Gobierno de España et al. 2022; “Diseases under targeted when affecting mountain caprine populations in Eurasia, surveillance in the Iberian ibex” section), followed by other being considered a health emergency at the wild/domestic diseases investigated and/or reported in Iberian ibex but with caprine interface in Europe (Rossi et al. 2019; Pérez et al. little or unknown effects in population health and demogra- 2021). Particularly, sarcoptic mange has been described in phy (“Other diseases” section). Finally, the diseases favored most of the Iberian ibex populations, frequently associated by captivity are specifically mentioned, since captive Iberian with dramatic demographic declines (Fandos 1991; León- ibex populations are subjected to particular conditions and Vizcaíno et al. 1999; Valldeperes et al. 2018a, b). health risks (Granados et al. 1996b; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Etiology Infectious diseases causing symptomatology Sarcoptes scabiei has a monoxenous life cycle, developing and mortality with demographic impact all the stages in a single host. Once fertilized, females bur- in Iberian ibex populations row galleries in the host skin and lay up to 50 eggs during their 4–6 weeks lifetime, at a rhythm of 3–4 eggs per day Sarcoptic mange (Walton and Currie 2007; Arlian and Morgan 2017). After three to eight days, hexapodial larvae exit the eggs and bur- Sarcoptic mange is considered an emerging or re-emerging zoonotic row into short galleries known as pouches. There they molt disease, caused by the skin-burrowing mite Sarcoptes scabiei. consecutively to protonymphs in 3 to 4 days, to tritonymphs This mite is considered a single species with host taxon-specific in 2 to 3 days, and finally into adults after 2 or 3 days more 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 3 of 36 63 (Arlian and Vyszenski-Moher 1988; Bornstein et al. 2001). Apparently, less than 1% of the eggs complete this cycle to become adults (Mellanby 1944). Survival of S. scabiei off the host is limited because the mites cannot maintain their water balance. Mite survival increases with lower temperatures and higher humidity, although rising temperatures up to 35° enhance mite mobil- ity (Mellanby et al. 1942; Arlian et al. 1989). Congelation at − 25 °C and 50% of relative humidity for 90 min killed 100% of S. scabiei var. canis mites (Arlian et al. 1984a). The lifespan of adult females and nymphs doubles that of male mites (Arlian et al. 1989). Symptomatology, pathogenesis, and immune response Fig. 1  Iberian ibexes affected by sarcoptic mange with skin lesions of different severity. a Female ibex with mild sarcoptic mange (grade I). Clinical signs vary depending on the host species and the b Scratching mangy adult male collared for monitoring (left) accom- individual immune status (Pence and Ueckermann 2002), but panied by a healthy young male. c Young male ibex with severe sar- sarcoptic mange consistently induces skin local inflammatory coptic mange (grade III–IV). d Young male ibex died because of sar- response directly related to the severity of the disease and the coptic mange with 100% of the body surface affected (grade IV) number of mites (Petersen et al. 2004). Clinical signs include pruritus, seborrhoea, erythema, papules, and alopecia, pro- to general hair loss (Cross et al. 2016; Simpson et al. 2016; gressing to hyperkeratosis, skin thickening, and crusts when Süld et al. 2017) and feeding impairment by severe lesions in the disease becomes chronic, followed by secondary bacte- the lips making food apprehension difficult (Abu-Samra et al. rial infections (Bornstein et al. 2001; Nakagawa et al. 2009; 1981; León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999), leading overall to weight Niedringhaus et al. 2019; Swe et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. loss independently of the availability of resources, which is 2017d). These secondary bacterial infections are favored by more severe in males (Carvalho et al. 2015; López-Olvera the immunosuppressing action of the mite and the scratch- et al. 2015). The progressive decline of physical condition ing lesions (Mika et al. 2012; Swe et al. 2014), originating also affects reproduction (Davies 1995; Sarasa et al. 2011; deep recurring pyodermas that can evolve to septicaemia Espinosa et al. 2017a), skeletal development, and body and (McCarthy et al. 2004; Nakagawa et al. 2009). In Iberian horn growth (Serrano et al. 2007; Pérez et al. 2011b). ibex, five categories regarding the extension of body surface As the pathogenic effects of the mites, host immune affected by lesions compatible with sarcoptic mange have been response against sarcoptic mange is also both local and sys- defined, namely, 0, without apparent lesions; grade I, skin sur- temic. Systemically, S. scabiei infestation induces antibody face affected ≤ 25%; grade II, skin surface affected between 25 production, namely, immunoglobulins E and G, although this and 50%; grade III, skin surface affected between 50 and 75%; systemic immune humoral response is correlated with the and grade IV, skin surface affected > 75% (Pérez et al. 2011a; extension of the lesions, acting as an indicator of inflammation Ráez-Bravo et al. 2015) (Fig. 1). However, S. scabiei infesta- rather than being protective (Lastras et al. 2000; Rodríguez- tion has further multisystemic consequences beyond the local Cadenas et al. 2010; Pérez et al. 2015; Ráez-Bravo et al. 2016; skin lesions (Espinosa et al. 2020), including a reduction in Naesborg-Nielsen et al. 2022). Similarly, the acute-phase pro- body condition, hematological and serum biochemical dis- tein response is also correlated with the severity of sarcoptic orders (Perez et al. 2015), increase in oxidative stress with a mange in Iberian ibex (Ráez-Bravo et al. 2015). Although the decrease in the antioxidant status (Saleh et al. 2011; Espinosa effects of sarcoptic mange in male Iberian ibex are more severe et al. 2017b; Naesborg-Nielsen et al. 2022), and/or inflamma- (López-Olvera et al. 2015), the systemic humoral immune tory acute phase protein response (Ráez-Bravo et al. 2015; response is more intense in females, either naïve or in reinfes- Pastor et al. 2019), with amyloid deposits in parenchymal tations (Sarasa et al. 2010). Thus, although previous exposi- organs (Espinosa et al. 2017d, 2020). All these changes con- tion to the mite may induce a certain resistance to reinfection, tribute to the pathogenesis of the disease, reducing survival with a faster and more intense systemic immune response (Van and/or hampering the recovery of ibexes in chronic stages of Neste 1986; Arlian et al. 1994a, b; Arlian et al. 1996, 1995; sarcoptic mange. The intense pruritus and continuous scratch- Taringan 2014), in Iberian ibex, this seems to be true for males ing related to the massive release of histamine and other rather than for females (Sarasa et al. 2010). The systemic cel- antigenic compounds impair feeding and resting, causing lular immune response consists of an increase in leukocyte constant stress and energetic imbalance (Bates 1997). This count, including an increase in T lymphocytes, neutrophils, negative energy balance is further worsened by heat loss due and eosinophils in the blood (Pérez et al. 2015). 13 63 Page 4 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 In the skin, sarcoptic mange induces a local immune cel- 2012; Alasaad et al. 2015), which allows phylogenetic analy- lular response with macrophages and T lymphocytes and, ses (Ueda et al. 2019; Moroni et al. 2021); (2) detection of to a lesser extent, B lymphocytes and plasma cells, overall the immunoglobulin G generated by the host species after resembling a type I and/or type IV hypersensitivity immune contact with S. scabiei (Puigdemont et al. 2002; Rambozzi response (Lalli et al. 2004; Salvadori et al. 2016; Bhat et al. et al. 2004; Bornstein et al. 2006; Casais et al. 2007; Oleaga 2017; Martínez et al. 2020; Naesborg-Nielsen et al. 2022). et al. 2008; Millán et al. 2012; Haas et al. 2015a; Ráez-Bravo The predominant cellular type and the immune response et al. 2016), which allows retrospective epidemiologic stud- pathway and genes activated by the mite seem to determine ies (Haas et al. 2018); (3) camera-trapping, useful for detect- the clinical outcome of scabietic humans and animals. Con- ing mange in naïve or suspected areas reducing surveillance sequently, in wildlife species, the local immune cellular effort but unreliable to assess prevalence and with the same response can determine the probability of individual sur- probability of false negatives and positives as visual diagnosis vival and the population demographic impact. Overall, the (Oleaga et al. 2011; Haas et al. 2015b; Brewster et al. 2017; individuals developing a less intense but more efficient local Carricondo Sánchez et al. 2017; Saito and Sonoda 2017); (4) skin inflammatory cellular response have more probability thermal imaging, based in the increased body heat radiation of developing mild clinical mange, preventing the progres- of mangy individuals due to hair loss and skin inflamma- sion to severer disease (Bhat et al. 2017; Ráez-Bravo 2019). tion, with low sensitivity beyond a distance of 100 m and Immunosuppressant effects by the mite through the down- therefore mostly useful only with handled individuals (Cross regulation of the immune response pathways and genes to et al. 2016; Arenas et al. 2002; Granados et al. 2011), where facilitate the colonization of the skin have been suggested other reliable specific and sensitive alternatives exist; and (5) (Lalli et al. 2004; Mika et al. 2012; Ráez-Bravo 2019). The trained dogs, which have successfully detected dead chamois trade-off between the immunosuppressing action of the mite or severely affected by sarcoptic mange in the Alps, appar- and the local and systemic immune response of the hosts ently with high sensitivity and 100% specificity (Alasaad determines the distribution and abundance of mites in the et al. 2012). However, none of these diagnostic methodologies affected skin, which is not homogeneous (Castro et al. 2016; have been either validated or standardized yet. Arlian and Morgan 2017); the number of mites carried by a Finally, the non-specific increases of acute-phase proteins host; the proportion of skin surface affected; the severity of and oxidative stress induced by sarcoptic mange have been the disease; and, consequently, the clinical outcome (Pérez proposed to diagnose and monitor sarcoptic mange in wild- et al. 2011a; Ráez-Bravo 2019). life (Rahman et al. 2010; Ráez-Bravo et al. 2015; Espinosa et al. 2017b). However, these indicators can also increase for Diagnosis other disorders (Pastor et al. 2019) and therefore cannot be considered diagnostic for an individual, although they can There is not yet a diagnostic method for sarcoptic mange be helpful to monitor wildlife populations where sarcoptic with the ideal sensitivity and specificity (Chandler and mange is the only or the main disease circulating. Fuller 2019; Pérez et al. 2021). While visual diagnosis is the most basic, extended, and long-term used method for sarcop- Epidemiology tic mange monitoring on the field and has therefore become the reference (Pérez et al. 2011a) (Fig. 1), both false nega- Direct contact between infested and naïve hosts is the main tives and false positives occur (Valldeperes et al. 2019; Pérez transmission route of S. scabiei. The individuals with chronic et al. 2021). Such limitations led to the recommendation of lesions and higher percentages of affected skin carrying more completing visual diagnosis on the field with the detection mites are the main source of infestation for their conspecifics of mites and/or eggs in skin scrapings or biopsies digested (Arlian and Vyszensky-Moher 1988; Pérez et al. 2011a). Nev- with potassium hydroxide (Pérez et al. 2011a; Valldeperes ertheless, indirect transmission through fomites also exists. et al. 2019), unveiling an 87% sensitivity and a 61% specific- Sarcoptic mange epidemiology is further determined by both ity for visual diagnosis on the field (Valldeperes et al. 2019). intrinsic factors, such as host sex, age, body condition, and However, this method requires capturing and handling the social behavior (González-Candela and León-Vizcaíno 1999; ibex or retrieving the carcass for sampling, and while 100% Rahbari et al. 2009; Carvalho et al. 2015; López-Olvera et al. specific, it can also produce false negatives (Rambozzi et al. 2015), and extrinsic factors, such as temperature, relative 2004; Walton and Currie 2007; Walter et al. 2011). humidity, and seasonality (Pérez et al. 1997a; Rahbari et al. Further advances in sarcoptic mange diagnosis have been 2009; Pérez et al. 2011a, 2017; Iacopelli et al. 2020; Martín- proposed to overcome limitations and improve sensitivity, Monedero et al. 2022; Pérez et al. 2022). specificity, and/or applicability on the field, including (1) Beyond these particular determinants, in naïve free-ranging molecular techniques to detect genetic material of S. scabiei populations of wild mountain ungulates, the entry of S. sca- through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Mounsey et al. biei produces an epizootic of disease that spreads to affect the 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 5 of 36 63 whole population in a variable number of years (Fernández- provoked variable mortalities, reaching up to 90% (Fandos 1991; Morán et al. 1997; Pérez et al. 1997a; León-Vizcaíno et al. Pérez et al. 1997a; León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999), but afterward, the 1999; Rossi et al. 2007; Turchetto et al. 2014; Valldeperes et al. disease remained enzootic in all the affected populations, with 2018a, b; Obber et al. 2022; Sosa et al. 2022). Such outbreaks prevalences even below 1% and, correspondingly, associated low are usually associated with variable mortality rates until sarcop- mortality (Ruiz-Martínez et al. 1993). These enzootic situations, tic mange becomes enzootic and the population eventually starts however, can be intercalated with sporadic outbreaks with asso- recovering. Nevertheless, the affected populations do not always ciated mortality below 20% (Gil Collado 1960). reach the densities existing before the epizootics, which are Such eco-epidemiological transition can only be explained also conditioned by other factors such as population abundance by the apparition of mange-resistant hosts during the epizootic and genetic variability before the outbreak, interspecific com- phase (Guberti and Zamboni 2000; Turchetto et al. 2014; Pérez petition, culling management strategy, and other population, et al. 2022), as demonstrated, among other evidences, by (1) the environment, and management factors (Fandos 1991; Loison transition of sarcoptic mange in the affected populations from et al. 1996; Pérez et al. 1997a, 2021, 2022; León-Vizcaíno et al. epizootic to enzootic, with decreasing prevalences reaching val- 1999; González-Quirós et al. 2002a, b; González-Candela et al. ues down to 1% (Fandos 1991; Pérez et al. 1997a, 2021, 2022; 2004; Rossi et al. 2007; Nores and González-Quirós 2009; León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999; Valldeperes et al. 2018a, b; Granados Espinosa et al. 2020; Granados et al. 2020) (Fig. 2). et al. 2020); (2) the differential clinical outcome of free- This eco-epidemiological transition from epizootic out- ranging mangy ibexes, with recovery and long-term survival break to endemic disease participating as a regulation factor of the resistant individuals (over 649 days), as compared to in population dynamics has occurred in most of the Iberian critical and rapidly lethal clinical evolution in the non-resistant ibex populations affected by sarcoptic mange (Fig. 3; Fandos ones (around 90 days) (León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999; Alasaad 1991; Pérez et al. 1992; Pérez et al. 1994; Palomares and Ruiz- et al. 2013) (Fig. 4); and (3) the identification of the same Martínez et al. 1993; Ruiz Martínez et al. 1996; Pérez et al. clinical trends and outcomes (total recover, partial recover, 1997a; Sánchez 1998; León-Vizcaino et al. 1999; Sánchez and terminal) in Iberian ibexes experimentally infested with Isarria et al. 2008a, b; Prada and Herrero 2013; Mentaberre S. scabiei (Ráez-Bravo et al. 2015, 2016; Espinosa et al. 2017d, et al. 2015; Valldeperes et al. 2018a, b). The initial outbreaks 2017b; Ráez-Bravo 2019; Valldeperes et al. 2019). Fig. 2  Different population trends in two Iberian ibex populations Natural Space population (light gray), before and after the outbreak in affected by sarcoptic mange, namely, Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y 1985-1986 and 1992-1993, respectively Las Villas Natural Park population (deep gray) and Sierra Nevada 13 63 Page 6 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Fig. 3  Distribution of Iberian ibex populations not affected (light grey) and affected (dark grey) by sarcoptic mange at a municipality scale, indi- cating the year(s) of the first description or initial outbreak of sarcoptic mange in each affected population Management of sarcoptic mange in Iberian ibex populations 2. Eradication of S. scabiei is deemed impossible and unfea- sible even in human populations, where known treatments The management of sarcoptic mange in wild Caprinae popu- exist and all the individuals can be treated (Falk 1982; lations has been recently revised (Espinosa et al. 2020; Pérez Arlian 1989). However, Iberian ibex depopulation has et al. 2021). Briefly, potential measures include (1) preventing been proposed to eradicate sarcoptic mange in this spe- the entry of a disease in a naïve population; (2) eradicating a cies (Arenas, et al. 2002, 2009a, b), although it is against disease already present in a population; (3) controlling a disease all odds and the minimum essential requirements of an present in a population, maintaining low prevalence but without integrated ecosystem management of wildlife diseases eradicating it; or (4) not acting (Wobeser 1994, 2002; Espinosa (Aguirre et al. 1995; Espinosa et al. 2020). Moreover, even et al. 2020). Any wildlife disease management, however, must if complete Iberian ibex depopulation was achieved, other be integrated with a comprehensive holistic management of the sympatric mammal hosts, either domestic or wild, could ecosystem (Aguirre et al. 1995). maintain the mite, acting as a reservoir until an eventual repopulation (natural or anthropic) by Iberian ibex. 1. Since domestic livestock is the origin of most of the out- 3. Ivermectin is an antiparasitic macrocyclic lactone tradi- breaks of sarcoptic mange in Iberian ibex (Lavín et al. 2000a; tionally used to control sarcoptic mange in domestic ani- Moroni et al. 2021), controlling sarcoptic mange in sympa- mals (Ibrahim and Abu-Samra 1987; Geary 2005), which tric small ruminant flocks seems therefore a key to control has also been parenterally used to deworm wildlife spe- the entry of S. scabiei in naïve Iberian ibex populations. cies and boost the immune system (López-Olvera et al. 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 7 of 36 63 macrocyclic lactones can lead to overdosing (Old et al. 2021; Mounsey et al. 2022). Moreover, such inadequate dosage and massive release of antiparasitic drugs in the environment increase the probability of the mite generating resistance against the treatment (Tabashnik 1994; Vermunt 1996; Currie et al. 2004; Bliss et al. 2008; Terada et al. 2010; Andriantjoanirina et al. 2014), which adds to the detrimental environmental consequences for coprophagous arthropods and other non-target invertebrates (Sommer et al. 1992; Herd et al. 1996; Verdú et al. 2015, 2018). Conversely, monitoring and exceptional individual culling because of animal welfare only in severely affected ibexes have been implemented as a conservative and minimally interventionist management measure in Iberian ibex populations affected by sarcoptic mange (Ruiz-Martínez et al. 1996; Espinosa et al. 2020; Moroni et al. 2020). Such an approach eases the eco- epidemiological transition of mange from epizootic to enzootic, through the selection and survival of resistant host and mutual adaption of host and parasite (Granados et al. 2011). Besides, the Fig. 4  Male Iberian ibex captured and GPS-collared in Sierra Nevada simultaneous monitoring of population and health status (Cardoso Natural Space and monitored for more than 2 years. The disease evolved et al. 2021; Barroso et al. 2022) allows for assessing, determining, through different infestation stages, and finally, the ibex healed and com- and monitoring the prevalence and population trends over time pletely recovered from sarcoptic mange spontaneously without treat- (Espinosa et al. 2020; Granados et al. 2020; Pérez et al. 2021). ment. Similar trends were observed in a number of individuals Infectious keratoconjunctivitis 2006). The successful individual treatment of sarcoptic mange in captive Iberian ibexes with parenteral injec- Etiology tions of ivermectin (Pérez et al. 1996c; León-Vizcaíno et al. 2001; Sarasa et al. 2010) has led to the empiric mass Infectious keratoconjunctivitis is a disease affecting the release of ivermectin-medicated feed in natural protected eyes of domestic and wild small ruminants. The causal role areas in eastern Spain inhabited by Iberian ibex popula- of keratoconjunctivitis has been attributed to a number of tions affected by sarcoptic mange (Sánchez-Isarria et al. bacteria, including Corynebacterium pyogenes, Escherichia 2008a, b; Valldeperes et al. 2022a), being even legally coli, Chlamydia psittaci, Ch. abortus, Moraxella bovoculi, authorized in different regions within Spain, such as Moraxella (Branhamella) ovis (formerly named Neisseria Andalucía (southern Spain) and Aragon (northern Spain) ovis), Listeria monocytogenes, Mycoplasma other than M. (Junta de Andalucía 2021; Gobierno de Aragón 2022). conjunctivae (including M. agalactiae), Staphylococcus aureus, or Rickettsia-like spp. (Bijlenga et al. 1983; Blanco However, oral administration of macrocyclic lactones to et al. 1982; Egwu et al. 1989; Dagnall 1994a, b; Rodríguez free-ranging wildlife populations through medicated feed is et al. 1996; González-Candela et al. 2007; Verbisck-Bucker mostly empiric and entails unanswered concerns regarding its et al. 2008; Verbisck et al. 2010; Holzwarth et al. 2011; usefulness, efficacy, and potential risks to the target species, Arnal et al. 2013; Osman et al. 2013; Dickey et al. 2016). other wildlife, the environment, and even human public health However, evidences have finally identified that infectious (Rowe et al. 2019; Espinosa et al. 2020; Moroni et al. 2020; keratoconjunctivitis is related to the infection by virulent Valldeperes et al. 2022b). On-field administration of in-feed strains of M. conjunctivae (Nicolet and Freundt 1975; ivermectin-induced mean plasma concentrations below the Giacometti et al. 1998, 1999; Zimmermann et al. 2008), therapeutic threshold was reported for other parasites and although M. conjunctivae and M. agalactiae have been pointed only in a proportion of Iberian ibexes, which is insufficient to out indistinctively as etiological agents in the past since both decrease S. scabiei transmission (Nolan et al. 1985; Pound et al. were phylogenetically classified together (Rodríguez et al. 1996; Davey et al. 2010; Valldeperes et al. 2022a). Moreover, 1996; González-Candela et al. 2007, León-Vizcaíno et al. ivermectin plasma concentration decreased below 20% in 72 2008c; Verbisck-Bucker et al. 2008; Verbisck et al. 2010). h after experimental administration in Iberian ibexes (Moroni Initially, M. conjunctivae infection was believed to always et al. 2022a), further demonstrating the lack of efficacy of this cause clinical disease in wild mountain ungulate populations measure. On the other hand, massive administration of topic (Giacometti et al. 1998, 1999, 2002a, b), but later studies 13 63 Page 8 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 showed that M. conjunctivae can be carried out asymptomat- Epidemiology ically by these species (Ryser-Degiorgis et al. 2009; Mavrot et al. 2012; Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017a, b). Nevertheless, Mycoplasma conjunctivae is transmitted through direct the role of Chlamydiaceae in infectious keratoconjunctivitis contact and by flies, which act as mechanical vectors of wild free-ranging mountain ungulate populations is still in (Degiorgis et al. 1999; Giacometti et al. 2002a; Fernández- discussion (Holzwarth et al. 2011; Arnal et al. 2013; Dias- Aguilar et al. 2019), allowing infectious keratoconjunc- Alves et al. 2021). tivitis to spread at a speed estimated over 15 km/year (Degiorgis et al. 2000). This disease is characterized by Symptomatology a relatively high morbidity with a low mortality ranging from 5% up to 27%, mostly due to starvation or falls in the Clinical signs of infectious keratoconjunctivitis include steep mountain environment inhabited by wild caprines dur- blepharospasm, conjunctivitis, epiphora, varying degrees ing the blindness stage of the disease (Loison et al. 1996; of corneal opacity and ulceration, ocular damage, and Degiorgis et al. 2000; Giacometti et al. 2002a). Mountain inflammation, which cause visual impairment and blind- ungulate populations can be demographically affected both ness (Mayer et al. 1997). The disease is usually transient, by keratoconjunctivitis epidemics and the associated cull- and the infection commonly courses to spontaneous clinical ing management to try to reduce density to decrease M. recovery, although clinical signs may progress to staphyloma conjunctivae transmission, but populations usually recover and corneal perforation (Giacometti et al. 1998; Fernández- in 5 years after the outbreak (Gauthier 1991; Loison et al. Aguilar et al. 2017a, b, c) (Fig. 5). 1996). Clinical infectious keratoconjunctivitis follows a seasonal pattern, with more cases in summer due to the Diagnosis increase of susceptible host densities, because of the birth of naïve kids and the higher abundance of insect vectors of In the past, the study of infectious keratoconjunctivitis was M. conjunctivae. Although the morbidity is lower in win- limited by the performance of traditional culture techniques, ter, the relative mortality is higher due to the more adverse not only in wildlife but also in domestic animals, due to the environmental conditions (Rossi et al. 2019). Small domes- difficulty to culture and isolate M. conjunctivae (Nicolet and tic ruminants, mainly sheep, were traditionally assumed as Freundt 1975; Giacometti et al. 1998, 1999). However, the the main reservoir of M. conjunctivae, and wild mountain development of molecular techniques, namely, PCR, allowing caprines were considered spillover hosts that could not the identification, characterization, and sequencing of M. con- maintain infectious keratoconjunctivitis without the par- junctivae has allowed not only to certify the central role of this ticipation of domestic hosts (Giacometti et al. 2002a, b; pathogen in the etiology of infectious keratoconjunctivitis, Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2013, 2017c; Rossi et al. 2019). but also to diagnose this disease in infected individuals and to However, separate independent epidemiological cycles in understand the relationship between M. conjunctivae strains domestic and wild ruminants and the capability of wild and disease (Vilei et al. 2007; Fernández-Aguilar. 2017a, b, mountain ungulate populations to maintain M. conjuncti- c; Yang et al. 2022). Additionally, serological tests detecting vae circulation without the participation of domestic hosts antibodies both in serum and in lachrymal against M. conjunc- have been demonstrated later (Ryser-Degiorgis et al. 2009; tivae allow retrospective epidemiological studies in wild free- Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017a, b). ranging mountain ungulates populations (Belloy et al. 2001). Fig. 5  Free-ranging Iberian ibex kid from Sierra Nevada Natural Space with mild conjunctivitis in the right eye consistent with infectious keratoconjunctivitis. Different clinical stages of infectious keratoconjuncti- vitis caused by Mycoplasma conjunctivae in Iberian ibexes kept in captivity in Sierra Nevada (Espinosa et al. 2017c; Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017b) 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 9 of 36 63 Infectious keratoconjunctivitis in Iberian ibex populations open through fistulae through the skin and leak their necrotic- purulent content (Fig. 6). The lesions may also affect paren- In Iberian ibex, M. conjunctivae has been reported in associa- chymal organs, and then, the disease can often be fatal, with tion with sporadic cases of keratoconjunctivitis (Antón et al. progressive cachexia, weakness, and death (Baird and Fontaine 1999; Cubero et al. 2002; Arnal et al. 2009; Revilla Calavia 2007; Domenis et al. 2018). 2012), outbreaks in free-ranging and captive populations (León-Vizcaíno et al. 2008c; Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017b), Diagnosis and endemicity in free-ranging populations (Ramírez-Rosales 2018) (Fig. 5, Table 1). While prevalences can be low in unaf- The diagnosis is based on compatible clinical signs and fected Iberian ibex populations, without the presence of M. lesions and is further confirmed by bacteriological cul- conjunctivae in asymptomatic individuals (León-Vizcaíno ture and identification or PCR from the purulent exudates et al. 2008c; Revilla Calavia 2012; Fernández-Aguilar et al. (Colom-Cadena et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Antibod- 2017b), they can rise during epizootics and reach even higher ies against C. pseudotuberculosis can also be investigated enzootic values after the epizootic, turning to asymptomatic as through ELISA tests, allowing retrospective epidemiological in domestic small ruminant flocks (Fernández-Aguilar et al. studies at the population scale (Solanet et al. 2011; Colom- 2013, 2017b, c; Ramírez-Rosales 2018) (Table 1). The 1-year Cadena et al. 2014; Varela-Castro et al. 2017). evolution from an outbreak with severe clinical signs to an asymptomatic endemic status in a captive Iberian ibex popu- Caseous lymphadenitis in Iberian ibex lation (Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017b) suggests that at least certain outbreaks can be related to the exposure of populations Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis has been reported in to new virulent strains of M. conjunctivae, until the relationship Iberian ibex, both endemically in free-ranging populations between the pathogen and the host ibex population evolves to and associated with disease outbreaks with mortality due an endemic balance situation. This finding is consistent with to visceral forms in captive populations (González-Candela the higher prevalence of M. conjunctivae described in young et al. 2006; León-Vizcaíno et al. 2008b; Colom-Cadena et al. individuals, which later achieve to eliminate or control the 2014; Varela-Castro et al. 2017) (Fig. 6, Table 1), but there infection as they develop an efficient immune response with is a lack of knowledge on the potential demographic effects increasing age and exposure to the infectious agent (Giacometti of this disease on the populations of this species. Although et al. 2002a, b; González-Candela et al. 2006, 2007; León- domestic livestock has been suspected as the origin of case- Vizcaíno et al. 2008c; Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2017a, b, c). ous lymphadenitis in the affected Iberian ibex populations, once the interspecific transmission has occurred, C. pseu- Management of infectious keratoconjunctivitis dotuberculosis can circulate and probably be maintained by Iberian ibex alone, both in captive and free-ranging popu- Targeted health surveillance for M. conjunctivae in tran- lations (Colom-Cadena et al. 2014; Varela-Castro et al. shumant domestic small ruminant flocks (Lawson et al. 2017). Captivity seems to enhance the transmission of C. 2021) should help to prevent the introduction of new viru- pseudotuberculosis and the severity of the clinical signs due lent strains of M. conjunctivae in Iberian ibex populations, to increased pathogen circulation, increased risk of penetrat- although this will not prevent the circulation of the strains ing wounds caused by the facilities or in intraspecific fights, already endemically maintained in the wildlife populations and immunosuppression induced by prolonged captivity- (Fernández-Aguilar et al. 2013, 2017a, c; Rossi et al. 2019). related stress (Colom-Cadena et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Although endemic caseous lymphadenitis probably Caseous lymphadenitis has little relevance in Iberian ibex free-ranging populations, it can hinder the management of captive populations or in Etiology intensive game estates aimed at conservation actions or game resource exploitation, respectively (Granados et al. Caseous lymphadenitis is a chronic infectious disease caused 1996b; Colom-Cadena et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c). by the bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, affecting domestic and wild small ruminants (Dorella et al. Management of caseous lymphadenitis 2006; Domenis et al. 2018). in Iberian ibex populations Pathogenesis and symptomatology In captivity, individual treatment of the affected ibexes through aspiration, cleaning, and disinfection of the puru- This disease is characterized by caseous lesions most fre- lent material and fistulae and administration of systemic quently affecting the superficial lymph nodes, which can antibiotic, combined with autovaccination using the strains 13 63 Page 10 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Table 1  Prevalences and 95% central confidence intervals reported for Mycoplasma conjunctivae, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, Oestrus caucasicus, and Babesia ovis in Iberian ibex Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Comments Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (Mycoplasma conjunctivae) Antón et al. (1999) 0.4% Culture No further data available in the reference Cubero et al. (2002) 0.4% (2/450) 0.0–1.1 Serum CFT González-Candela 14.3% (46/321) 10.5–18.2 Conjunctive/ear swabs Culture Mycoplasma agalactiae et al. (2006, 2007) León Vizcaíno et al. 0.8% (2/259) 0.0–1.8 Conjunctive swabs Culture (2008c) 0.48% (2/415) 0.0–1.1 Serum ELISA Arnal et al. (2009) 27.8% (5/18) 7.1–48.5 Conjunctive swabs PCR All the ibexes sampled had clinical signs Revilla Calavia (2012) 3.6% (7/196) 1.0–6.2 Conjunctive swabs PCR 29/196 of the ibexes sampled had clinical signs 24.1% (7/29) 8.6–39.7 All the ibexes sampled had clinical signs 0.0% (0/167) 0.0–0.0 None of the ibexes sampled had clinical signs Fernández-Aguilar 35.4% (17/48) 23.4–49.6 Conjunctive swabs PCR Epizootic in a captive et al. (2017b) population 8.7% (12/46) 3.4–20.3 Post-epizootic decrease in a captive population 4.3% (2/46) 1.2–14.5 Post-epizootic decrease in a captive population 75.3% (52/69) 64.0–84.0 Asymptomatic enzootic in a captive population 68.7% (33/48) 54.7–80.0 Serum ELISA Epizootic in a captive population 54.3% (25/46) 40.2–67.8 Post-epizootic decrease in a captive population 46.5% (20/43) 32.5–61.1 Post-epizootic decrease in a captive population 38.5% (10/26) 23.4–59.3 Asymptomatic enzootic in a captive population Ramírez-Rosales 17.7% (26/147) 11.9–24.8 Conjunctive swabs PCR Enzootic in a free-ranging (2018) population Caseous lymphadenitis (Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis) González-Candela 3.1% (10/321) 1.2–5.0 Conjunctive, nasal, Culture Corynebacterium sp. et al. (2006) and vaginal swabs León Vizcaíno et al. 2.9% (1/35) 0.0–8.4 Serum ELISA (2008b) Colom-Cadena et al. 0.0% (0/18) 0.0–0.0 Inspection Lesions Initial entry at an enclosure (2014) from the wild 68.8% (11/16) 46.0–91.5 Epizootic after less than 1 year in captivity 5.6% (1/18) 0.0–16.1 Serum ELISA Initial entry at an enclosure from the wild 85.7% (12/14) 67.4–100.0 Epizootic after less than 1 year in captivity Varela-Castro et al. 18.9% (68/360) 14.8–22.9 Serum ELISA Enzootic in a free-ranging (2017) population Oestrus caucasicus Pérez et al. (1996a, b) 73.9% (133/180) 67.5–80.3 Head Sinus inspection Pérez et al. (1997b) 67.1% (271/404) 62.5–71.7 Head Sinus inspection Antón et al. (2002) 59.0% (343/581) 55.0–63.0 Head Sinus inspection 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 11 of 36 63 Table 1  (continued) Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Comments Calero-Bernal et al. 9.5% (4/42) 0.6–18.4 Serum ELISA Antibodies against Oestrus (2020) sp. Babesia ovis Ferrer et al. (1998) 32.6% (155/475) 28.4–36.8 Serum IFAT Antón et al. (2002) 59.8% (73/122) 51.1–68.5 Serum IFAT 0.0% (0/110) 0.0–0.0 Blood smear Microscopic inspection Calero-Bernal et al. 43.4% (56/129) 34.9–52.0 Serum IFAT (2020) CFT complement fixation test, CI confidence interval, ELISA enzyme-linked immunoassay, IFAT indirect fluorescent antibody test, PCR poly- merase chain reaction isolated in the population, have been recommended and have than in domestic animals. This seems to be the case for the apparently successfully controlled outbreaks (Colom-Cadena larvae of the Diptera Oestrus spp., with prevalences above et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Since the epidemiological 87% in the Iberian ibex population in Sierra Nevada, usually knowledge of C. pseudotuberculosis in Iberian ibex is still parasitizing nasal, sinus, and horn cavities (Ruiz-Martínez limited, no specific management recommendations exist for et al. 1992; Granados et al. 1996a; Pérez et al. 1996b, 1997b; the management of caseous lymphadenitis in free-ranging Antón et al. 2002) (Table 1). Another parasite apparently Iberian ibex populations, apart from identifying the epide- common and frequently reported in Iberian ibex popula- miological status of the population and the potential domestic tions is the intracellular protozoan Babesia ovis. Not only a and wild reservoirs participating in the circulation and main- contact with this parasite has been reported in Iberian ibex tenance of the pathogen (Varela-Castro et al. 2017). through serology (Ferrer et al. 1998; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020) (Table 1), but mortality related to babesiosis has also Parasitic diseases been described in a Mediterranean Iberian ibex population (Marco et al. 2000). In this same population, the gastrointes- Most of the parasites identified in Iberian ibex are shared tinal nematode Haemonchus contortus also was reported to with domestic livestock (Rossi et al. 1994; Pérez et al. 1996c) cause mortality in Iberian ibex, apparently related to a com- and are not related to clinical disease (Calero-Bernal et al. bination of high host population density with environmental 2020). However, some parasites are exclusive or at least more conditions that favored the parasite (Lavín et al. 1997). prevalent in wild ungulates and specifically in Iberian ibex Diseases under targeted surveillance in the Iberian ibex Apart from the sarcoptic mange, the Spanish national wild- life health surveillance program includes brucellosis among the diseases subjected to targeted health surveillance (Lawson et al. 2021; Gobierno de España et al. 2022). Additionally, to move Iberian ibex among game estates and/or natural areas, the Spanish legislation requires performing specific diagnostic tests for tuberculosis and bluetongue, as well as for sarcoptic mange and brucellosis as aforementioned (Gobierno de España et al. 2009). Although an impact of brucellosis, tuberculosis, and bluetongue on Iberian ibex population dynamics has not Fig. 6  Free-ranging Iberian ibex kid (a) and adult male (b) from Sierra been reported, brucellosis and tuberculosis are zoonotic dis- Nevada with apparently draining prescapular lymph node fistulae, eases shared with livestock subjected to eradication programs compatible with Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection. c–e (Gobierno de España et al. 1996; Gobierno de España 2003), Fistulized popliteal lymph node of a female Iberian ibex kept in cap- and bluetongue is a notifiable animal disease (Gobierno de tivity at the Ports de Tortosa i Beseit National Game Reserve enclo- sure. The presence of C. pseudotuberculosis was confirmed through España et al. 2014), which motivates the targeted surveillance bacterial culture and microbiological characterization (Colom-Cadena of these three diseases for Iberian ibex movements in Spain et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c) (Gobierno de España et al. 2009; Lawson et al. 2021). 13 63 Page 12 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Brucellosis Revilla Calavia 2012) (Table 2). Hence, resistance against tuberculosis, either behavioral, immunological, and/or eco- Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium logical, has been suggested for Iberian ibex (Mentaberre et al. Brucella melitensis and B. abortus, which can affect domes- 2010). Experimental studies including the challenge of Ibe- tic and wild animals and humans (Corbel 1997; Seleem et al. rian ibex with MTC under controlled conditions should be 2010). Despite being included in the targeted health surveil- carried out in order to elucidate whether this apparent resist- lance of Iberian ibex (Gobierno de España et al. 2009, 2022), ance of Iberian ibex exists or not and whether it is related to a single clinical case with isolation of B. melitensis biovar 1 ecological, behavioral, and/or immunological factors in case (Muñoz et al. 2010) has been reported, and the seropreva- of existing. The results of such research should consequently lences detected in this species range from 0 to 2.6% depend- justify the need to continue targeted surveillance of tubercu- ing on the diagnostic test used. This suggests that Iberian ibex losis in this species or, conversely, allow the elimination of is not a reservoir for brucellosis but a spillover accidental tuberculosis from the list of diseases to monitor and control host (Antón et al. 1999; León-Vizcaíno et al. 2008a; Muñoz in Iberian ibex. et al. 2010; Astorga-Márquez et al. 2014; Junta de Andalucía 2015; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020; Gómez-Guillamón et al. Bluetongue 2020) (Table 2). Nevertheless, the isolation of B. meliten- sis in the closely related Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) was first Bluetongue is a disease caused by different serotypes of reported almost 25 years ago (Ferroglio et al. 1998), and this orbivirus, mainly transmitted by vector midges of the genus species has been described as the first wild ungulate species Culicoides (Mellor and Wittmann 2002; Mertens et al. maintaining and possibly acting as a reservoir for brucel- 2004). This disease can affect domestic and wild ruminants losis in the last decade, causing serious concern because of and camelids and is a notifiable disease included in the spillback to domestic cattle (Hars et al. 2013, 2015; Rossi health surveillance and eradication programs of the Euro- et al. 2019). Since the causes for the new reservoir role for pean Union (Council Directive 2000/75/EC). Consequently, brucellosis in this species and the management of this disease bluetongue has been added to the diseases under surveil- are still unclear and generate concern and conflict (Lambert lance previously to Iberian ibex translocations according et al. 2020, 2021, 2022), keeping brucellosis surveillance and to the specific Spanish legislation (Gobierno de España preventing the entry of this disease in Iberian ibex popula- et al. 2009). Experimental infection has demonstrated that tions are warranted. Iberian ibex is susceptible to bluetongue virus infection, albeit subclinically (Lorca-Oró et al. 2012), and seropreva- Tuberculosis lences against bluetongue virus ranging from 3.4 to 11.1% have been reported in Iberian ibex free-ranging populations Tuberculosis is another zoonosis in the wildlife-livestock- without associated clinical signs (García et al. 2009; Lorca- human interface, caused by bacteria of the Mycobacterium Oró et al. 2011; Astorga-Márquez et al. 2014; Lorca-Oró tuberculosis complex (MTC) (Desta et al. 2022). A single et al. 2014; Junta de Andalucía 2015; Gómez-Guillamón clinical case of apparent clinical tuberculosis attributed to et al. 2020) (Table 2). Nevertheless, in 2018 the circula- Mycobacterium bovis affecting the lung and liver in a female tion of bluetongue virus serotype 4 in domestic ruminants Iberian ibex has been reported out of a sample size of 450 was associated with an outbreak of mortality in sympatric (0.2%), although the confirmation through microbiological Iberian ibexes (Gómez-Guillamón et al. 2021). The change culture diagnostic techniques was not specified. This same in the epidemiological consideration of Iberian ibex with study did not achieve to identify M. bovis through immu- regard to bluetongue virus from susceptible asymptomatic nofluorescence in the lungs and lymph nodes of 175 Ibe- host to clinical host where mortality can occur warrants rian ibexes (Cubero et al. 2002). Antibodies against MTC further monitoring and targeting this disease in the health have been detected in Iberian ibex with seroprevalences surveillance of this species. up to 14.6% (Revilla Calavia 2012; Ruiz-Rodríguez 2018; In summary, except for sarcoptic mange, no significant Calero-Bernal et al. 2020) (Table 2). However, clinical cases epidemiological impact or demographic effect has been of tuberculosis-like lesions confirmed through microbiologi- reported up to date for the remaining diseases under targeted cal culture have not been described in the available literature health surveillance in Iberian ibex (brucellosis, tuberculosis, or official reports, not even in areas with a known circu- and bluetongue). Hence, the reason to monitor and survey lation of MTC in the wildlife-livestock interface and with these three diseases in Iberian ibex is rather their relevance apparent high infection pressure (León Vizcaíno et al. 2008b; in domestic livestock, where they are included in eradication Mentaberre et al. 2010, 2014; García-Bocanegra et al. 2012a; programs, and the risk for zoonosis and transmission among 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 13 of 36 63 Table 2  Prevalences and 95% central confidence intervals reported for brucellosis, tuberculosis, and bluetongue in Iberian ibex Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Brucellosis (Brucella melitensis and B. abortus) Antón et al. (1999)* 1.0% Culture Cubero et al. (2002) 0.9% (4/450) 0.0–1.8 Serum RBT, CFT León Vizcaíno et al. (2008a) 1.0% (6/598) 0.2–1.8 Serum, lymph node, spleen, Culture, PCR, RBT, CFT, ELISA vaginal fluid Muñoz et al. (2010) 0.3% (3/1086) 0.0–0.6 Serum ELISA Revilla Calavia (2012) 0.0% (0/1474) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA Astorga Márquez et al. (2014)0.0% (0/214) 0.0–0.0 Serum RBT, CFT Junta de Andalucía (2015) 2.6% (15/571) 1.3–3.9 Serum RBT 0.3% (2/585) 0.0–0.8 CFT Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) 0.0% (0/50) 0.0–0.0 Serum RBT, CFT, AGIDT 0.0% (0/50) 0.0–0.0 Genital mucosa Culture Gómez-Guillamón et al. (2020) 2.5% (2/549) 1.2–3.8 Serum RBT 0.4% (2/564) 0.0–0.8 CFT Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex) Cubero et al. (2002) 0.0% (0/175) 0.0–0.0 Lung, lymph node Immunofluorescence León Vizcaíno et al. (2008b) 0.0% (0/35) 0.0–0.0 Carcass ELISA, lesions, culture Mentaberre et al. (2010) 0.0% (0/205) 0.0–0.0 Carcass Lesions Revilla Calavia (2012) 1.5% (10/648) 0.6–2.5 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/150) 0.0–0.0 Carcass Necropsy, culture, Ziehl–Neelsen García-Bocanegra et al. 0.0% (0/460) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA (2012a) Mentaberre et al. (2014) 0.0% (0/355) 0.0–0.0 Carcass Lesions Ruiz-Rodríguez (2018) 14.6% (35/239) 10.2–19.1 Serum ELISA Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) 6.0% (3/50) 0.0–12.6 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/50) 0.0–0.0 Lung, mediastinal lymph nodes Culture González-Insa (2021) 7.9% (3/38) 0.0–16.5 Serum ELISA Bluetongue virus García et al. (2009) 10.8% (9/83) 0.0–32.4 Serum ELISA Lorca-Oró et al. (2011) 4.0% (31/770) 2.6–5.4 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/380) 0.0–0.0 Blood PCR 2.9% (1/34) 0.0–8.6 Spleen PCR Revilla Calavia (2012) 0.3% (2/722) 0.0–0.7 Serum ELISA Astorga Márquez et al. (2014) 1.9% (4/214) 0.1–3.7 Serum ELISA Lorca-Oró et al. (2014) 11.1% (4/36) 0.8–21.4 Serum ELISA Junta de Andalucía (2015) 3.4% (19/559) 1.9–4.9 Serum ELISA Gómez-Guillamón et al. (2020) 3.3% (18/538) 1.8–4.9 Serum ELISA AGID agar gel immunodiffusion test, CFT complement fixation test, ELISA enzyme-linked immunoassay, PCR polymerase chain reaction, RBT Rose Bengal test * No further data available in this reference domestic animals and wildlife from a One Health approach Paratuberculosis (Gortázar et al. 2007, 2016; Espinosa et al. 2017c; Rossi et al. 2019). Paratuberculosis is an intestinal chronic wasting disease affecting ruminants, caused by the facultative intracellular Other diseases pathogen Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratubercu- losis (MAP) (Windsor 2015). MAP is considered endemic Diseases not included in the targeted health surveillance of Ibe- in Spain (Fanelli et al. 2020), where antibodies against rian ibex and without known demographic effects have none- MAP have been detected in wild ungulates (Reyes-García theless been investigated in the populations of this species. et al. 2008; López-Olvera et al. 2009; Falconi et al. 2010). 13 63 Page 14 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Although the low prevalences generally found suggest that CCHFV has not been detected in Iberian ibex nor in ticks wild ungulates are not a reservoir for MAP (Carta et al. carried by this species, the high seroprevalences reported 2012, 2013), paratuberculosis outbreaks with associated warrant further research on the potential role of this spe- mortality have been reported in naïve wild ungulate popu- cies as a CCHFV reservoir and/or mechanical spreader of lations including Alpine ibex, but not in Iberian ibex (Marco CCHFV-infected ticks, to assess the potential zoonotic risk. et al. 2002; Ferroglio et al. 2000). Antibodies against MAP have been reported in this species with prevalences ranging Abortive agents from 0% up to 4.4% (Revilla Calavia 2012; Astorga-Márquez et al. 2014; Pizzato 2017; Ruiz-Rodríguez 2018; Calero- A number of abortive agents can cause congenital perinatal Bernal et al. 2020; Gómez-Guillamón et al. 2020) (Table 3). mortality in wild ruminants. In Iberian ibex, the presence The spatial analyses of the seroprevalences obtained have and/or contact with the abortive agents Chlamydophila pointed out domestic livestock as a risk factor for positivity spp., Coxiella burnetii (etiological agent of Q fever), Lepto- in Iberian ibex, suggesting that this species is rather a spillo- spira pomona, Mycoplasma agalactiae, M. arginine and M. ver or dead-end host than a reservoir for MAP (Pizzato 2017; mycoides subspecies mycoides (etiological agents of conta- Ruiz-Rodríguez 2018). However, the detection of MAP by gious agalactia), Neospora caninum, pestivirus (etiological PCR in the ileocecal valve of 22% of the Iberian ibexes ana- agent of border disease), Salmonella abortusovis, Schmal- lyzed compared to the lower seroprevalence of 4.4% in the lenberg virus, and Toxoplasma gondii has been investigated same population (Pizzato 2017) suggests that MAP carriage and/or reported (Almería et al. 2007; González-Candela et al. in Iberian ibexes could be underestimated when assessed 2007; León-Vizcaíno et al. 2008d; García-Bocanegra et al. through serological studies. Apart from the higher sensitiv- 2012b; Astorga-Márquez et al. 2014; Junta de Andalucía ity of ileocecal valve PCR to diagnose MAP infection as 2015; Cano-Manuel 2017; Ruiz-Rodríguez 2018; Varela- compared to serum ELISA analysis in Iberian ibex (Pizzato Castro et al. 2018; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020; Gómez- 2017), these results raise a concern about a potential hidden Guillamón et al. 2020; Almería et al. 2021; González- role of this species in the epidemiology of MAP. Insa 2021; Jiménez-Ruiz et al. 2021) (Table 3). Although undoubtedly all these agents can affect population dynamics Crimean‑Congo hemorrhagic fever by decreasing fertility, birth rate, and kid survival, the demo- graphic impact of these pathogens has not been studied nor Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever is a disease caused by a reported in Iberian ibex populations. Moreover, if Iberian Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), a tick- ibex populations are capable of maintaining the circulation transmitted orthonairovirus. It is a zoonotic disease that can of these pathogens as a reservoir, this may also suppose a cause potentially lethal systemic hemorrhagic disease in risk and concern for sympatric domestic livestock. humans, with a mortality rate ranging between 3 and 30% The clinical outcomes and prevalences reported vary from of the humans infected (Ergonul 2012; Bente et al. 2013). failure to detect and/or identify the agent to high prevalences, Domestic and wild animals can be subclinically infected but so no consistent trend can be identified for abortive patho- are infectious for ticks feeding from them (Spengler et al. gens in Iberian ibex (Table 3). The prevalences reported 2016). Autochthonous human clinical cases with associ- probably depend on the particular agent and population stud- ated mortality have been recently reported in the Iberian ied; the objective of the diagnosis (contact through antibod- Peninsula (Negredo et al. 2017, 2021a, b), although it is yet ies or identification of the etiological agent), the specific unclear whether the virus was already present or its distri- diagnostic methodology used, the specific ecosystem and bution area has lately spread (Spengler and Bente 2017). environment inhabited by each ibex population studied, and Ticks belonging to the genus Hyalomma spp. were tradi- the contact with and pressure by domestic livestock, among tionally considered the main vector of CCHFV (Spengler other factors. It is therefore difficult to establish a role as et al. 2016), but different CCHFV strains have been recently a reservoir or spillover host for Iberian ibex with regard to identified in Spain in multiple tick species of different gen- these pathogens, as well as the aforementioned effect on era obtained from the environment and domestic and wild population demography and dynamics. However, since these animals (Moraga-Fernández et al. 2021; Sánchez-Seco et al. diseases are shared with domestic livestock and some of 2022), widening the epidemiological scenario of CCHFV them have zoonotic potential, increasing health surveillance transmission. Seroprevalences of antibodies against CCHFV at the interface between domestic and wild animals, includ- reaching up to 100% have been detected in Iberian ibex Med- ing Iberian ibex, is warranted, as well as performing further iterranean populations, suggesting that CCHFV is endemic specific studies aimed at elucidating the demographic effect in the region at least since 2010, with a clustered distribution of these infections in Iberian ibex population dynamics and associated with high densities of bovine livestock (Espunyes the potential risk for domestic livestock. et al. 2021; Carrera-Faja et al. 2022) (Table 3). Although 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 15 of 36 63 Table 3  Prevalences and 95% central confidence intervals reported for paratuberculosis, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and abortive agents in Iberian ibex Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Comments Paratuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis) Cubero et al. (2002) 0.0% (0/5) 0.0–0.0 Intestine and lymph node IF Revilla Calavia (2012) 1.1% (7/652) 0.3–1.9 Serum ELISA Astorga Márquez et al. 1.9% (4/214) 0.1–3.7 Serum ELISA (2014) Pizzato (2017) 9.2% (2/46) 6.2–12.3 Serum ELISA 22.0% (20/91) 13.5–30.5 Ileocecal valve PCR Ruiz-Rodríguez (2018) 4.4% (12/271) 2.0–6.9 Serum ELISA Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) 0.0% (0/50) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/50) 0.0–0.0 Ileocecal valve Culture Gómez-Guillamón et al. 0.5% (3/564) 0.0–1.1 Serum ELISA (2020) González-Insa (2021) 2.6% (1/38) 0.0–7.7 Serum ELISA Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) Espunyes et al. (2021) 78.6% (66/84) 69.8–87.3 Serum ELISA An Iberian ibex free-ranging population had a 100% prevalence of antibodies against CCHFV Carrera-Faja et al. (2022) 96.0% (121/126) 92.6–99.4 Serum ELISA Abortive agents Chlamydophila spp. Cubero et al. (2002) 13.3% (60/450) 10.2–16.5 Serum CFT Chlamydia psittacci León Vizcaíno et al. 13.4% (67/500) 10.4–16.4 Serum ELISA Chlamydophila abortus (2008d) Astorga Márquez et al. 0.0% (0/214) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA Chlamydophila abortus (2014) Junta de Andalucía 0.0% (0/58) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA Chlamydia abortus (2015) Varela-Castro et al. 30.0% (39/130) 22.1–37.9 Serum ELISA (2018) 9.8% (11/112) 4.3–15.3 Spleen/Submandibular LN PCR Calero-Bernal et al. 4.0% (2/50) 0.0–9.4 Serum CFT Chlamydia sp. (2020) González-Insa (2021) 0.0% (0/38) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA Chlamydophila abortus Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) León Vizcaíno et al. 5.4% (27/500) 3.4–7.4 Serum CFT (2008d) Astorga Márquez et al. 12.6% (27/214) 8.2–17.1 Serum ELISA (2014) Ruiz-Rodríguez (2018) 13.4% (34/254) 9.2–17.6 Serum ELISA Varela-Castro et al. 30.0% (39/130) 10.0–29.8 Serum ELISA (2018) 9.8% (11/112) 7.6–27.25 Spleen/Lymph node PCR Calero-Bernal et al. 10.0% (5/50) 1.7–18.3 Serum ELISA (2020) González-Insa (2021) 2.6% (1/38) 0.0–7.7 Serum ELISA Leptospira pomona León Vizcaíno et al. 0.0% (0/450) 0.0–0.0 Serum MAT (2008d) Contagious agalactia (Mycoplasma agalactiae, M. mycoides subsp. mycoides, and other mycoplasmas) Cubero et al. (2002) 2.0% (9/450) 0.7–3.3 Serum CFT M. agalactiae 13 63 Page 16 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Table 3  (continued) Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Comments González-Candela et al. 18.4% (59/321) 14.1–22.6 Conjunctive/ear swabs Culture All mycoplasmas (2007) 14.3% (46/321) 10.5–18.2 M. agalactiae 5.9% (19/321) 3.3–8.5 M. arginini 0.3% (1/321) 0.0–0.9 M. mycoides mycoides 6.2% (20/321) 3.6–8.9 Unidentified mycoplasmas Verbisck-Bucker et al. 11.2% (46/411) 8.1–14.2 Conjunctive/ear swabs Culture M. agalactiae (2008) Verbisck et al. (2010) 14.3% (5/35) 2.7–25.9 Conjunctive/ear swabs Culture M. agalactiae 85.7% (30/35) 74.1–97.3 Serum ELISA Astorga Márquez et al. 0.0% (0/214) 0.0–0.0 Serum CFT M. mycoides mycoides (2014) 0.9% (2/214) 0.0–2.2 Serum ELISA M. agalactiae Junta de Andalucía 5.8% (32/550) 3.9–7.8 Serum ELISA M. agalactiae (2015) Gómez-Guillamón et al. 5.7% (30/529) 3.7–7.6 Serum ELISA M. agalactiae (2020) Neospora caninum Almería et al. (2007) 0.0% (0/3) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA León Vizcaíno et al. 1.0% (5/485) 0.1–1.9 Serum ELISA (2008d) Calero-Bernal et al. 13.0% (14/108) 6.6–19.3 Serum ELISA (2020) García-Bocanegra et al. 5.6% (30/531) 3.7–7.6 Serum ELISA (2012b) 5.1% (27/531) 3.2–7.0 Serum IFAT Cano-Manuel (2017) 4.8% (7/147) 1.3–8.2 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/147) 0.0–0.0 Serum WB Border disease (pestivirus) León Vizcaíno et al. 8.4% (42/500) 6.0–10.8 Serum ELISA (2008d) Astorga Márquez et al. 2.3% (5/214) 0.3–4.4 Serum ELISA (2014) Junta de Andalucía 11.4% (62/545) 8.7–14.0 Serum ELISA (2015) Gómez-Guillamón et al. 11.0% (58/525) 8.4–13.7 Serum ELISA (2020) González-Insa (2021) 0.0% (0/38) 0.0–0.0 Serum ELISA Salmonella abortusovis Cubero et al. (2002) 0.2% (1/450) 0.0–0.7 Serum WAT​ S. abortusovis serogroup B León Vizcaíno et al. 0.8% (4/500) 0.0–1.6 Serum MAT (2008d) Junta de Andalucía 0.4% (1/231) 0.0–1.3 Serum ELISA Salmonella sp. (2015) Toxoplasma gondii León Vizcaíno et al. 18.2% (91/500) 14.8–21.6 Serum ELISA (2008d) García-Bocanegra et al. 27.5% (146/531) 23.7–31.3 Serum MAT (2012b) Cano-Manuel (2017) 11.6% (17/147) 6.4–16.7 Serum ELISA 0.0% (0/147) 0.0–0.0 Serum WB Calero-Bernal et al. 2.9% (4/137) 0.1–5.7 Serum ELISA (2020) Almería et al. (2021) 13.9% (14/101) 7.4–20.6 Serum MAT 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 17 of 36 63 Table 3  (continued) Reference Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Sample Technique Comments Schmallenberg virus Jiménez-Ruiz et al. 19.9% (49/246) 14.9–24.9 Serum ELISA (2021) González-Insa (2021) 5.3% (2/38) 0.0–12.4 Serum ELISA CFT complement fixation test, ELISA enzyme-linked immunoassay, IF immunofluorescence, IFAT indirect fluorescent antibody test, LN lymph node, MAT modified agglutination test, PCR polymerase chain reaction, WAT​Wright’s agglutination test, WB western blot Bacterial and viral pneumoniae to the extinction of common and abundant species (Ytrehus et al. 2008; Kock et al. 2018), further research on the etiol- Besides abortive agents, pneumoniae play a relevant and long- ogy, pathogenesis, and demographic effects of these respira- known role in population dynamics of wild mountain ungu- tory processes in wild mountain ungulates and particularly in lates, either through yearly mortality of young animals dur- Iberian ibex is required, in order to be able to prevent future ing their first winter or through mortality outbreaks in adult disease and mortality outbreaks and improve their man- individuals, usually linked to the exposition to new pathogens agement if they occur, as well as to take into account their carried by domestic animals and/or changes in environmental demographic effect for population management. In captive or climatological conditions (Foreyt and Jessup 1982; Black populations, stress-related immunosuppression, overcrowd- et al. 1988; Gonzalez and Crampe 2001; Rudolph et al. 2007; ing and deficient ventilation, and changes in diet favor pneu- Besser et al. 2008; Ytrehus et al. 2008; Posautz et al. 2014; monic and septicaemic outbreaks by M. haemolytica, P. mul- Kock et al. 2018). There is an extended number of potential tocida and B. trehalosi, and paramyxovirus (Espinosa et al. pathogens identified in pneumonia outbreaks in wildlife, 2017c). including among other bacteria such as Bibersteinia treha- losi (formerly known as Pasteurella trehalosi), Corynebac- Other infectious bacterial and viral diseases terium pyogenes (most likely opportunistic), Mannheimia glucosida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Moraxella bovis, Other pathogens have been punctually described in Iberian Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida, other ibex without associated widespread distribution in the inves- hemolytic Pasteurellaceae or Mannheimia spp. or viruses as tigated population, disease outbreak, mortality, demographic parainfluenza-3 virus (pneumovirus), and syncytial respira- effect, and/or potential risk for domestic livestock or humans tory virus (respirovirus) (Foreyt and Jessup 1982; Black et al. (Antón et al. 1999, 2002; González-Candela et al. 2006; 1988; Lavín et al. 2000b; Rudolph et al. 2007; Besser et al. Revilla Calavia 2012; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020). Thus, low 2008; Ytrehus et al. 2008; Dassanayake et al. 2010, 2013; prevalence (1.25%) associated with domestic livestock has Posautz et al. 2014; Kock et al. 2018). However, despite the been described against Escherichia coli O157:H7, a poten- long time elapsed since the causal relationship among patho- tially zoonotic bacterium (Navarro-González et al. 2015). gens, disease, mortality, and demographic effects has been Staphylococcus spp. has been cultivated from Iberian ibex, established, there is still controversy about the relationship even with a 100% prevalence (González-Candela et al. among the different pathogens identified and what combina- 2006; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020), although no clear connec- tions or action sequences cause disease and mortality and tion with pathology and population impact could be estab- which do not (Dassanayake et al. 2010, 2013). Although the lished. A new bacterium, Streptococcus caprae spp. nov., impact of pneumoniae on the population dynamics of other with phenotypic, biochemical, and phylogenetic differences mountain ungulate species mainly by affecting recruitment is with other Streptococcus species has been described in Ibe- well known, this disease has not been thoroughly investigated rian ibex (Vela et al. 2016). Antibodies against the Maedi- in Iberian ibex, whose populations occupy different habi- Visna virus were detected in a serosurvey in two out of 38 tats and environments ranging from sea level to more than Iberian ibexes analyzed, accounting for a 5.3% prevalence 3400 m above sea level (Pérez et al. 2002) and can therefore (González-Insa 2021). be challenged by pathogens causing pneumonia in different environmental conditions and seasons. A serological study was carried out in Iberian ibexes from southern Spain, reveal- Other non‑lethal parasites ing 8.1% and 1.3% seroprevalence against P. multocida A and P. multocida D, respectively (Cubero et al. 2002). Since Apart from the parasites described above, widespread in pneumonia can cause mass mortalities leading to wiping out Iberian ibex populations and/or related to disease and mor- completely the affected populations and even leading almost tality outbreaks (S. scabiei, O. caucasicus, B. ovis, and 13 63 Page 18 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 H. contortus, see “Sarcoptic mange” and “Parasitic dis- et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2017c; Varela-Castro et al. 2017). eases”), more than 60 parasite species have been described Moreover, other diseases mentioned below have not been in the Iberian ibex, including ectoparasites, gastrointestinal described or do not cause symptomatology in free-ranging and pulmonary nematodes (with prevalences over 80%), Iberian ibex populations but have been detected and caused coccidia, cestodes, trematodes, and protozoans (Rossi et al. disease only in captive populations (Espinosa et al. 2017c). 1994; Cano et al. 1996; Castellà et al. 1996; Pérez et al. Enterotoxemia or “pulpy kidney disease” is a disease 1996a, 2003, 2006; Antón et al. 1999, 2002; Granados caused by the epsilon toxins of the gram-positive bacterium et al. 2001; Refoyo et al. 2016; Calero-Bernal et al. 2020; Clostridium perfringens type D. The disease is normally Carrau et al. 2021a, b) (Table 4). More recently, intense tick related to qualitative and/or quantitative changes in diet lead- infestations have been reported, which could increase in the ing to intestinal dysbiosis, favoring bacterium encapsulation future if global change provides conditions favoring their and toxin production (Uzal and Kelly 1996; García et al. life cycle. Such intense tick burdens can affect the health and 2013; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Although such diet changes body condition of the host both per se through blood loss can also happen seasonally or because of habitat modifica- and by acting as vectors and/or amplifiers of other pathogens tions in free-ranging Iberian ibex populations, this is more (Varela-Castro et al. 2018). The parasitic fauna of Iberian frequent and sudden in captive populations where diet is ibex forms a complex ecosystem where the different parasite managed by humans, increasing the probability and sever- species interact among them, with the host, and the environ- ity of clostridiosis (Espinosa et al. 2017c). Quarantine and ment, maintaining a dynamic balance that can lead to disease vaccination (at the entry to captivity and annually), a fiber- in the individual or even cause population epizootics as a rich diet without sudden changes, and avoiding stress are the result of disruptions in the system (Pérez et al. 2006). recommended prophylactic measures. If disease occurs in a captive Iberian ibex population, treatment should include Non‑infectious diseases antibiotics and the aforementioned fiber-rich diet (Uzal and Kelly 1996; García et al. 2013; Espinosa et al. 2017c). Dental and skull abnormalities have been reported in Ibe- Contagious ecthyma is a disease caused by the orf virus, rian ibex, both in current populations and in paleontological included in the genus Parapoxvirus. This disease affects both remnants (Vigal and Machodorm 1987; Gómez-Olivencia domestic and wild small ruminants and is characterized by et al. 2011). Although anecdotal and with little impact on proliferative dermatitis with papules and pustules, usually the population dynamics of the species, tumors have been affecting the mouth, lips, and nose, although the lesions can reported in Spanish ibex. Thyroid carcinoma, cutaneous extend to the oral cavity, esophagus, abomasum, skin of the horn, pheochromocytoma, intestinal leiomyoma, and rumi- face, hooves, flanks, scrotum, perianal region, preputium, nal papilloma have been described in Iberian ibexes after vulva, and mamma (Fig. 7). The clinical signs are more necropsy during regular wildlife health surveillance (Arnal severe in kids, and the infection can complicate with second- et al. 2006). Two gastrointestinal tumors were found in two ary bacterial infections leading to death, although it is nor- free-ranging Iberian ibexes apparently healthy otherwise mally self-limiting. It is considered a professional zoonosis, (Velarde et al. 2008), and disseminated melanoma concur- although the clinical course is also benign and self-limiting rent with pheochromocytoma severely affected an old male in humans (Spyrou and Valiakos 2015). The stress associated to euthanasia (Arnal and Fernández de Luco 2017). with captivity seems to increase the morbidity and the clini- cal severity of the disease (Junta de Andalucía 2015). How- ever, antibodies against this virus were detected in the sera of Diseases related to or favored by captivity 11 out of 450 (2.4%) Iberian ibexes investigated in southern Spain (Cubero et al. 2002), indicating that the virus probably Captive Iberian ibex populations are kept in enclosures or circulates asymptomatically or subclinically in free-ranging at high density in fenced estates either for conservation populations. Occasional clinical cases (Camacho et al. 2017) purposes or for exploitation as game resource (Granados and a disease outbreak affecting both adults and kids with at et al. 1996b; Espinosa et al. 2017c). The higher host den- least one case of associated mortality (Estruch et al. 2020) sities associated with these conditions can favor pathogen have been described in free-ranging Iberian ibex populations. circulation, generating a more intense infection pressure that Management of contagious ecthyma outbreaks in captive can explain the higher prevalence and severity and even the populations includes isolation and treatment with antiseptics different epidemiological nature of disease outbreaks in cap- and antibiotics of the affected individuals, while prophylaxis is tive Iberian ibex populations as compared to free-ranging based on facility and equipment disinfection, since there is not populations, as described for caseous lymphadenitis in the an effective prophylactic vaccine (Spyrou and Valiakos 2015; “Caseous lymphadenitis” section and for pneumonia in the Espinosa et al. 2017c). “Bacterial and viral pneumoniae” section (Colom-Cadena 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 19 of 36 63 Table 4  Parasites reported in Iberian ibex Parasite Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Reference Abomasum Haemonchus contortus 50.0% (7/14) 23.8 – 76.2 Rossi et al. (1994) 14.3% (2/14) 0.0 – 32.6 Carrau et al. (2021a) Marshallagia dentispicularis 28.6% (4/14) 4.9 – 52.2 Carrau et al. (2021a) Marshallagia marshalli 35.7% (5/14) 10.6 – 60.8 Rossi et al. (1994) 86.7% (13/15) 69.5 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 85.5% (94/110) 78.9 – 92.0 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 78.5% (62/79) 69.4 – 87.5 Pérez et al. (2003) 35.7% (5/14) 10.6 – 60.8 Carrau et al. (2021a) Marshallagia occidentalis 14.3% (2/14) 0.0 – 32.6 Rossi et al. (1994) 7.3% (8/110) 2.4 – 12.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 22.8% (18/79) 13.5 – 32.0 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus abnormalis 0.9% (1/110) 0.0 – 2.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 3.8% (3/79) 0.0 – 8.0 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus davtiani 20.0% (3/15) 0.0 – 40.2 Pérez et al. (1996a) 21.8% (24/110) 14.1 – 29.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 21.5% (17/79) 12.5 – 30.6 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus oiratianus 35.5% (39/110) 26.5 – 44.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 2.5% (2/79) 0.0 – 6.0 Pérez et al. (2003) Ostertagia circumcincta 100.0% (14/14) 100.0 – 100.0 Rossi et al. (1994) Ostertagia leptospicularis 14.3% (2/14) 0.0 – 32.6 Carrau et al. (2021a) Ostertagia lyrate 0.9% (1/110) 0.0 – 2.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 1.3% (1/79) 0.0 – 3.7 Pérez et al. (2003) Ostertagia occidentalis 7.1% (1/14) 0.0 – 20.6 Carrau et al. (2021a) 0stertagia ostertagi 80.0% (12/15) 59.8 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 14.5% (16/110) 8.0 – 21.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 20.3% (16/79) 11.4 – 29.1 Pérez et al. (2003) 0.0% (0/14) 0.0 – 0.0 Carrau et al. (2021a) Ostertagia trifurcata/pinnata 64.3% (9/14) 39.2 – 89.4 Rossi et al. (1994) Spiculopteragia asymmetrica 42.9% (6/14) 16.9 – 68.8 Carrau et al. (2021a) Spiculopteragia quadrispiculata 21.4% (3/14) 0.0 – 42.9 Carrau et al. (2021a) Teladorsagia circumcincta 85.5% (94/110) 78.9 – 92.0 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 97.5% (77/79) 94.0 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (2003) 92.9% (13/14) 79.4 – 100.0 Carrau et al. (2021a) Teladorsagia davtiani 0.9% (1/110) 0.0 – 2.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 1.3% (1/79) 0.0 – 3.7 Pérez et al. (2003) 0.0% (0/14) Carrau et al. (2021a) Teladorsagia trifurcata 14.5% (16/110) 8.0 – 21.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 46.8% (37/79) 35.8 – 57.8 Pérez et al. (2003) 71.4% (10/14) 47.8 – 95.1 Carrau et al. (2021a) Trichostrongylus axei 35.7% (5/14) 10.6 – 60.8 Rossi et al. (1994) 0.9% (1/110) 0.0 – 2.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 2.5% (2/79) 0.0 – 6.0 Pérez et al. (2003) 35.7% (5/14) 10.6 – 60.8 Carrau et al. (2021a) Trichostrongylus vitrinus 1.8% (2/110) 0.0 – 4.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 2.5% (2/79) 0.0 – 6.0 Pérez et al. (2003) Small intestine Avitellina centripunctatta 0.2% (1/489) 0.0 – 0.6 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Marshallagia marshalli 20.9% (23/110) 13.3 – 28.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 14.4% (12/83) 6.9 – 22.0 Pérez et al. (2003) Marshallagia occidentalis 7.3% (8/110) 2.4 – 12.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 13 63 Page 20 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Table 4  (continued) Parasite Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Reference 3.6% (3/83) 0.0 – 7.6 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus abnormalis 28.6% (4/14) 4.9 – 52.2 Rossi et al. (1994) 100.0% (15/15) 100.0 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 54.5% (60/110) 45.2 – 63.9 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 42.2% (35/83) 7.9 – 76.4 Pérez et al. (2003) 82.4% (14/17) 64.2 – 100.0 Carrau et al. (2021a) Nematodirus davtiani 42.9% (6/14) 16.9 – 68.8 Rossi et al. (1994) 57.3% (63/110) 48.0 – 66.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 44.6% (37/83) 33.9 – 55.3 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus filicollis 100.0% (15/15) 100.0 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 1.8% (2/110) 0.0 – 4.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 1.2% (1/83) 0.0 – 3.6 Pérez et al. (2003) 11.8% (2/17) 0.0 – 27.1 Carrau et al. (2021a) Nematodirus oiratianus 56.4% (62/110) 47.1 – 65.6 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 47.0% (39/83) 36.3 – 57.7 Pérez et al. (2003) Nematodirus spathiger 7.1% (1/14) 0.0 – 20.6 Rossi et al. (1994) 2.7% (3/110) 0.0 – 5.8 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 2.4% (2/83) 0.0 – 5.7 Pérez et al. (2003) 47.1% (8/17) 23.3 – 70.8 Carrau et al. (2021a) Ostertagia ostertagi 4.5% (5/110) 0.7 – 8.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 3.6% (3/83) 0.0 – 7.6 Pérez et al. (2003) Teladorsagia circumcincta 47.3% (52/110) 37.9 – 56.6 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 31.3% (26/83) 21.3 – 41.3 Pérez et al. (2003) Teladorsagia trifurcata 9.1% (10/110) 3.7 – 14.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 7.2% (6/83) 1.7 – 12.8 Pérez et al. (2003) Trichostrongylus capricola 85.7% (12/14) 67.4 – 100.0 Rossi et al. (1994) 2.7% (3/110) 0.0 – 5.8 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 1.2% (1/83) 0.0 – 3.6 Pérez et al. (2003) 70.6% (12/17) 48.9 – 92.2 Carrau et al. (2021a) Trichostrongylus colubriformis 50.0% (7/14) 23.8 – 76.2 Rossi et al. (1994) 21.6% (8/37) 8.4 – 34.9 Pérez et al. (1996a) 0.0% (0/17) 0.0 – 0.0 Carrau et al. (2021a) Trichostrongylus vitrinus 21.4% (3/14) 0.0 – 42.9 Rossi et al. (1994) 4.5% (5/110) 0.7 – 8.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 3.6% (3/83) 0.0 – 7.6 Pérez et al. (2003) 70.6% (12/17) 48.9 – 92.2 Carrau et al. (2021a) Large intestine Chabertia ovina 52.9% (9/17) 29.2 – 76.7 Carrau et al. (2021a) Oesophagostomum venulosum 36.3% (4/11) 7.9 – 64.8 Rossi et al. (1994) 70.6% (12/17) 48.9 – 92.2 Carrau et al. (2021a) Skrjabinema ovis 29.4% (5/17) 7.8 – 51.1 Carrau et al. (2021a) Skrjabinema sp. 27.3% (3/11) 1.0 – 53.6 Rossi et al. (1994) Trichuris ovis 9.1% (1/11) 0.0 – 26.1 Rossi et al. (1994) 5.9% (1/17) 0.0 – 17.1 Carrau et al. (2021a) Faeces Eimeria aspheronica 0.5% (2/379) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria arloingi 73.9% (280/379) 69.5 – 78.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria caprina 5% (19/379) 2.8 – 7.2 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria capraovina 5% (19/379) 2.8 – 7.2 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria christenseni 10.0% (38/379) 7.0 – 13.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 86.4% (19/22) 72.0 – 100.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 21 of 36 63 Table 4  (continued) Parasite Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Reference Eimeria folchijevi 2.9% (11/379) 1.2 – 4.6 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria hirci 1.1% (4/379) 0.0 – 2.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria ninakohlykimovae 59.0% (13/22) 38.5 – 79.6 Pérez et al. (1996a) 6.1% (23/379) 3.7 – 8.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eimeria parva 63.6% (14/22) 43.5 – 83.7 Pérez et al. (1996a) Eimeria sp. 0.5% (2/379) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 97.7% (127/130) 95.1 – 100.0 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Moniezia expansa 5.4% (2/37) 0.0 – 12.7 Pérez et al. (1996a) 8.0% (39/489) 5.6 – 10.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Moniezia benedeni 7.8% (38/489) 5.4 – 10.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Moniezia sp. 10.0% (13/130) 4.8 – 15.2 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Bunostomum sp. 2.5% (1/40) 0.0 – 7.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) Cooperia sp. 2.5% (1/40) 0.0 – 7.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) Cystocaulus ocreatus 16.3%* Cano et al. (1996) Dictyocaulus filaria 37.5%* Cano et al. (1996) 1.5% (2/130) 0.0 – 3.7 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Dictyocaulus sp. 7.5% (3/40) 0.0 – 15.7 Refoyo et al. (2016) Muellerius capillaris 66.0%* Cano et al. (1996) 97.3% (110/113) 94.4 – 100.0 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Muellerius sp. 62.5% (25/40) 47.5 – 77.5 Refoyo et al. (2016) Nematodirus/Marshallagia sp. 22.5% (9/40) 9.6 – 35.4 Refoyo et al. (2016) Nematodirus sp. 50.0% (65/130) 41.4 – 58.6 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Ostertagia sp. 7.5% (3/40) 0.0 – 15.7 Refoyo et al. (2016) Protostrongylus sp. 4.5% (1/22) 0.0 – 13.2 Pérez et al. (1996a) Protostrongylus rufescens* 21.4% Cano et al. (1996) Skrjabinema sp. 42.5% (17/40) 27.2 – 57.8 Refoyo et al. (2016) Strongyloides sp. 17.5% (7/40) 5.7 – 29.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) Strongylidae 93.1% (121/130) 88.7 – 97.4 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Teladorsagia sp. 10.0% (4/40) 0.7 – 19.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) Toxocara vitulorum 0.8% (1/130) 0.0 – 2.3 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Trichuris sp. 2.4% (9/379) 0.8 – 3.9 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 2.5% (1/40) 0.0 – 7.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) 0.8% (1/130) 0.0 – 2.3 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Dicrocoelium dendriticum 0.5% (2/379) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 20.8% (30/144) 14.2 – 27.5 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Dicrocoelium sp. 2.5% (1/40) 0.0 – 7.3 Refoyo et al. (2016) Fasciola hepatica 1.3% (5/379) 0.2 – 2.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Paramphistomum sp. 0.5% (2/379) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 9.1% (2/22) 0.0 – 21.1 Pérez et al. (1996a) Liver Fasciola hepatica 6.7% (1/15) 0.0 – 19.3 Pérez et al. (1996a) 1.7% (8/478) 0.5 – 2.8 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Lungs Cystocaulus ocreatus 20.0% (3/15) 0.0 – 40.2 Pérez et al. (1996a) 32.1% (267/831) 29.0 – 35.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 26.3% (5/19) 6.5 – 46.1 Carrau et al. (2021b) Dictyocaulus filaria 1.2% (10/831) 0.5 – 1.9 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 0.0% (0/19) 0.0 – 0.0 Carrau et al. (2021b) Echinococcus granulosus 0.2% (1/479) 0.0 – 0.6 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Muellerius capillaris 26.7% (4/15) 4.3 – 49.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) 74.2% (617/831) 71.3 – 77.2 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 13 63 Page 22 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Table 4  (continued) Parasite Prevalence 95% central CI (%) Reference 84.2% (16/19) 67.8 – 100.0 Carrau et al. (2021b) Neostrongylus linearis 78.9% (15/19) 60.6 – 97.3 Carrau et al. (2021b) Neostrongylus sp. 31.3% (260/831) 28.1 – 34.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Protostrongylus sp. 35.3% (293/831) 32.0 – 38.5 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 57.9% (11/19) 35.7 – 80.1 Carrau et al. (2021b) Diaphragm Sarcocystis sp. 80% (24/30) 65.7 – 94.3 Pérez et al. (1996a) 27.4% (118/430) 23.2 – 31.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 84.0% (42/50) 73.8 – 94.2 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Peritoneum Avitellina sp. 6.7% (1/15) 0.0 – 19.3 Pérez et al. (1996a) Taenia hydatigena 27.1% (130/479) 23.2 – 31.1 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 6.9% (10/144) 2.8 – 11.1 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Brain Multiceps multiceps 1.1% (2/180) 0.0 – 2.6 Pérez et al. (1996a) Taenia multiceps 0.3% (2/582) 0.0 – 0.8 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Skin Dermacentor marginatus ** Castellà et al. (1996) 2.1% (10/475) 0.8 – 3.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Dermacentor reticulatus 0.6% (3/475) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Haemaphysalis sulcata Castellà et al. (1996) 32.2% (153/475) 28.0 – 36.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 10.9% (15/138) 5.7 – 16.1 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Haemaphysalis punctata ** Castellà et al. (1996) Hyalomma beneditai 18.9% (36/190) 13.4 – 24.5 Pérez et al. (1996a) Hyalomma marginatum marginatum 5.1% (7/138) 1.4 – 8.7 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Ixodes ricinus 20.0% (38/190) 14.3 – 25.7 Pérez et al. (1996a) 4.2% (20/475) 2.4 – 6.0 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 10.9% (15/138) 5.7 – 16.1 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Rhipicephalus bursa ** Castellà et al. (1996) 42.7% (203/475) 38.3 – 47.2 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) 52.2% (72/138) 43.8 – 60.5 Calero-Bernal et al. (2020) Rhipicephalus pusilus 15.8% (30/190) 10.6 – 21.0 Pérez et al. (1996a) Bovicola crassipes 14.2% (27/190) 9.2 – 19.2 Pérez et al. (1996a) 20.2% (96/475) 16.6 – 23.8 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Linnognathus sp. 1.1% (2/190) 0.0 – 2.5 Pérez et al. (1996a) Linognathus stenopsis 1.1% (5/475) 0.1 – 2.0 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Psoroptes sp. 0.6% (3/475) 0.0 – 1.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Trombicula sp. 1.6% (3/190) 0.0 – 3.4 Pérez et al. (1996a) 0.4% (2/475) 0.0 – 1.0 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Straelensia cynotis One case report Cevidanes et al. (2019) Blood Anaplasma ovis 4.5% (5/110) 0.7 – 8.4 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Eperytrozoon ovis 1.8% (2/110) 0.0 – 4.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Ehrlichia phagocytophila 0.9% (1/110) 0.0 – 2.7 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) Theileria ovis 1.8% (2/110) 0.0 – 4.3 Antón et al. (2002), Pérez et al. (2006) * Cano et al. (1996) reported prevalence but did not provide accurate sample size information to allow for estimation of confidence intervals ** Castellà et al. (1996) reported presence but did not provide prevalence values 13 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 Page 23 of 36 63 or increased moisture, favoring the casuistic for pyogenic infection (Espinosa et al. 2017c). Quarantine isolation with surgical debriding and antibiotic treatment can be effective in initial stages, but in advanced cases, prognosis is poor. Facil- ity design and careful handling to avoid injuries combined with early healing and disinfection of wounds are likely the best prophylactic options (Espinosa et al. 2017c). Future research on Iberian ibex diseases The comparison of the existent knowledge on sarcoptic mange and other diseases in Iberian ibex identifies the gaps to complete through future research. The knowl- edge on pathogenesis, host immune response, and patho- gen-host relationship for sarcoptic mange overcomes the research performed in these aspects for all the other dis- eases together. While the performance, usefulness on the Fig. 7  Adult Iberian ibex female (a–c) and kid (d) with crusted skin field and with handled ibexes, specificity, and sensitivity of lesions affecting the commissures of the mouth, peripheral lip epider- mis (a, d), oral mucosa (b), and interdigital area (c), consistent with diagnostic methods have been assessed for sarcoptic mange severe proliferative, pustular, and ulcerative dermatitis compatible with (Arenas et al. 2002; Granados et al. 2011; Alasaad et al. orf virus infection (contagious ecthyma) 2012, 2015; Mounsey et al. 2012; Ráez-Bravo et al. 2016; Valldeperes et al. 2019; Pérez et al. 2021), such knowledge is limited if existing at all for the other diseases reported Footrot or infectious pododermatitis is a disease affecting in Iberian ibex. Therefore, research on the pathogenesis, the hooves of domestic and wild ungulates, with the involve- epidemiology, treatment, and management of diseases in ment of bacteria such as Dichelobacter (Bacteroides) nodosus, Iberian ibex populations can be hampered by diagnostic Fusobacterium necrophorum, Arcanobacterium (Trueperella) limitations. Further research should be aimed at developing, pyogenes, and Treponema spp. (Lavín et al. 2004; Frosth et al. testing, validating, improving, and innovating diagnostic 2015; Espinosa et al. 2017c; Rzewuska et al. 2019). Although methods, particularly non-invasive and telemetric methods footrot has not been reported in free-living Iberian ibex, in which could be applied in free-ranging individuals and pop- captive populations, this disease is favored by the increase in ulations. Despite research on sarcoptic mange predominates concentration and the higher survival of these bacteria in moist the investigations of Iberian ibex diseases, the scientific and soils with abundant organic contents (Muzafar et al. 2015), as manager community is far from agreeing on the best man- well as by hoof wounds related to overgrowth because of lower agement of the disease, so further research on the efficacy wear and softening due to humid conditions (Espinosa et al. and applicability of the treatment and population manage- 2017c). Treatment of outbreaks in captive Iberian ibex popula- ment of sarcoptic mange in Iberian ibex should continue tions should include hoof trimming with the removal of dead to be a priority. Such research should include prophylactic tissue, systemic antibiotics, local footbaths with disinfectants, measures, not only for sarcoptic mange but also for the rest and soil management to prevent moisture and accumulation of of Iberian ibex diseases. Finally, the study and detection of organic matter. Prophylactic vaccination can be considered if coinfection patterns, studying the interaction among dif- prevalence is high and/or outbreaks are recurrent (Frosth et al. ferent pathogens and the host, should be key to understand 2015; Muzafar et al. 2015; Espinosa et al. 2017c). disease epidemiology in Iberian ibex, as it is for sympat- Finally, A. (T.) pyogenes and/or Staphylococcus aureus ric wild ungulates (Alasaad et al. 2008; González-Candela subsp. anaerobius can cause suppurative lesions. These bac- et al. 2009; García-Bocanegra et al. 2012b). teria are normally present in the skin and mucosae and can enter the body through wounds, producing multiple abscesses in the inner organs such as the lymph nodes, lungs, liver, kid- Conclusions neys, and/or central nervous system, among others, which can cause death (Espinosa et al. 2017c; Rzewuska et al. 2019). This review compiles the current knowledge available on Although this is a sporadic disease in free-ranging popula- the diseases of Iberian ibex, which has allowed the detec- tions, captivity conditions can increase skin trauma due to tion of gaps in knowledge with regard to the diseases that wounds caused by the facility, increased intraspecific fights, may affect this species and their management. Overall, the 13 63 Page 24 of 36 European Journal of Wildlife Research (2023) 69:63 information presented draws the major guidelines for the critically revised the manuscript and made significant contributions to future of disease research in this species and the consequent the text and tables. management applications, including the diseases to monitor Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma and the best management measures. de Barcelona. Part of the authors benefitted of the support of the While sarcoptic mange is the main health threat to naïve Consejería de Medio Ambiente of the Junta de Andalucía (Spain) to Iberian ibex populations, associated with morbidity and the group RNN 118 through the grants 173/2009/M/00; 03/15/M/00; 861_11_M_00, 2016/00014/M. This review benefitted from funding mortality with demographic impact, most of the affected of the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad through populations recover from the initial outbreaks and achieve the grants CGL2012-40043-C02-01, CGL2012-40043-C02-02, and an enzootic status, where the disease no longer hampers CGL2016-80543-P. Marta Valldeperes was supported by the pre- population viability. Thus, applying empiric measures to doctoral grant 2020_FI_B2_00049, funded by the Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca of the Generalitat de Catalunya manage this disease without scientific validation may not (Spain) and the European Social Fund. only be useless or even counterproductive, but can also negatively affect the evolution from epidemic outbreak to Data Availability All the data used to generate this review are publicly enzootic status by eliminating potentially resistant indi- available. The authors will share information on data location upon request. viduals. Moreover, apart from being inefficient, massive on-field administration of antiparasitic drugs (namely, Declarations macrocyclic lactones) intended for individual parenteral use is a major animal welfare, environmental, and health Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. concern. Since domestic livestock has been identified as the origin of sarcoptic mange outbreaks in Iberian ibex, Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- surveillance and control of this disease in small ruminant bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long livestock sympatric with Iberian ibex are probably more as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, efficient management options. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes The review of other diseases reported in Iberian ibex were made. The images or other third party material in this article are raises doubts about the rationale for the diseases included included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in in the health surveillance of this species, such as tubercu- the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not losis or brucellosis, since Iberian ibex seems not to be a permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will reservoir for these diseases and even rarely if ever affected need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a by them. Instead, other diseases that might be relevant in copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. the health surveillance of Iberian ibex populations deserve further research and monitoring to elucidate their potential effects in the population dynamics of the species. References Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Fundación Artemisan Abu-Samra MT, Hago BED, Aziz MA, Awad FW (1981) Sarcoptic mange (https://​funda​ciona​rtemi​san.​com/), which promotes environmental con- in sheep in the Sudan. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 75(6):639–645 servation and sustainable game management through research and com- Acevedo P, Cassinello J (2009) Biology, ecology and status of Iberian munication. Fundación Artemisan promoted a holistic-approach study on ibex Capra pyrenaica: a critical review and research prospectus. Iberian ibex in Spain, which gathered together the authors and originated Mamm Rev 39(1):17–32 the idea for this article. This review benefitted from the knowledge gen- Aguirre AA, Starkey EE, Hansen DE (1995) Wildlife diseases in erated through the research grants project 173/2009/M/00, 03/15/M/00, national park ecosystems. Wildl Soc Bull 23:415–419 861_11_M_00, and 2016/00014/M, funded by the Consejería de Medio Alados CL, Escós J (2017) Cabra montés – Capra pyrenaica. In: Salvador Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía, and CGL2012-40043-C02-01, A, Cassinello J (eds) Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Espa- CGL2012-40043-C02-02, and CGL2016-80543-P, funded by the Span- ñoles. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid. http://​www.​ ish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. The authors’ research verte​brado​siber​icos.​org. Accessed 17 Dec 2022 activities are partially supported by the Plan Andaluz de Investigación Alasaad S, Granados JE, Cano-Manuel FJ, Meana A, Zhu XQ, Pérez (RNM-118 group). MV was supported by a FI-GENCAT Fellowship JM (2008) Epidemiology of fasciolosis affecting Iberian ibex (2020_FI_B2_00049, co-financed by Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts Uni- (Capra pyrenaica) in southern Spain. Parasitol Res 102(4):751– versitaris i de Recerca of the Generalitat de Catalunya and the European 755. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s00436-​007-​0830-2 Social Fund). GM is a Serra Húnter Fellow. Alasaad S, Permunian R, Gakuya F, Mutinda M, Soriguer RC, Rossi L (2012) Sarcoptic-mange detector dogs used to identify infected Author contribution MV, PF, RCSE, ARB, FJCML, JESP, JMP, and animals during outbreaks in wildlife. BMC Vet Res 8:110. JEG compiled the information and drafted the sarcoptic mange sec- https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​1746-​6148-8-​110 tion of the manuscript; PP, JRLO, SL, GM, ST, JEST, and RV gath- Alasaad S, Granados JE, Fandos P, Cano-Manuel FJ, Soriguer RC, ered information on other diseases; JRLO drafted the section on other Pérez JM (2013) The use of radio-collars for monitoring wildlife diseases, elaborated all the tables, and prepared Figs. 5 and 6; JEG diseases: a case study from Iberian ibex affected by Sarcoptes prepared Fig. 2; JEG and JRLO prepared Figs. 1 and 4; JEG and MV scabiei in Sierra Nevada. Spain Parasites Vectors 6:242. https://​ prepared Fig. 3; JEG, JESP, and JRLO prepared Fig. 7. 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