c8dfe402f596d5ab17c3fdd94c219c96 pmc_10604195.pdf 9b05dd772fbcfada5c1a40ed3c3455b85be2c3d0 pmc_10604195.pdf a5da76592c1938e5dbf360df2e6af1dac18adb8b2cd8df06e8fc95730fc0a4fe pmc_10604195.pdf Title: A Classification Bias and an Exclusion Bias Jointly Overinflated the Estimation of Publication Biases in Bilingualism Research Subject: A publication bias has been argued to affect the fate of results in bilingualism research. It was repeatedly suggested that studies presenting evidence for bilingual advantages are more likely to be published compared to studies that do not report results in favor of the bilingual advantage hypothesis. This work goes back to the original claim and re-examines both the dataset and the classification of the studies that were employed. We find that the exclusion of published works such as doctoral dissertations, book chapters, and conference proceedings from the original dataset significantly inflated the presumed publication bias. Moreover, the estimation of the publication bias was affected by a classification bias that uses a mega-category that consists of both null and negative outcomes. Yet finding evidence for a bilingual disadvantage is not synonymous with obtaining a result indistinguishable from zero. Consequently, grouping together null and negative findings in a mega-category has various ramifications, not only for the estimation of the presumed publication bias but also for the field’s ability to appreciate the insofar hidden correlations between bilingual advantages and disadvantages. Tracking biases that inflate scientific results is important, but it is not enough. The next step is recognizing the nested Matryoshka doll effect of bias-within-bias, and this entails raising awareness for one’s own bias blind spots in science. Keywords: bilingual advantages; bilingual disadvantages; publication bias; cognitive trade-off Author: Evelina Leivada Creator: LaTeX with hyperref Producer: pdfTeX-1.40.21 CreationDate: Fri Oct 6 05:18:56 2023 CEST ModDate: Fri Oct 6 05:21:39 2023 CEST Tagged: no UserProperties: no Suspects: no Form: none JavaScript: no Pages: 19 Encrypted: no Page size: 595.276 x 841.89 pts (A4) Page rot: 0 File size: 3729756 bytes Optimized: no PDF version: 1.7 name type encoding emb sub uni object ID ------------------------------------ ----------------- ---------------- --- --- --- --------- AZMWTB+VnURWPalladioL Type 1 Custom yes yes no 10 0 BMEIWB+URWPalladioL-Bold Type 1 Custom yes yes no 15 0 WZJVCA+URWPalladioL-Roma Type 1 Custom yes yes no 20 0 OHOWGF+URWPalladioL-Ital Type 1 Custom yes yes no 24 0 WFRWYE+TimesNewRomanPS-BoldItalicMT Type 1C WinAnsi yes yes no 42 0 VORBJF+CMSY10 Type 1 Builtin yes yes no 70 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 84 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 87 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 93 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 96 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 99 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 113 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 116 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 122 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 125 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 128 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 142 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 145 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 151 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 154 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 157 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 171 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 174 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 180 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 183 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 186 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 200 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 203 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 209 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 212 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 229 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 232 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 238 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 241 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 244 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 257 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 260 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 266 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 269 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 272 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 290 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 293 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 299 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 302 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 305 0 OGFMLI+PalatinoLinotype,Bold TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 319 0 OGFMLJ+PalatinoLinotype CID TrueType Identity-H yes yes yes 322 0 OGFMLK+PalatinoLinotype TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 328 0 OGFMLM+PalatinoLinotype,Italic TrueType WinAnsi yes yes no 331 0 OGFNNH+PalatinoLinotype TrueType MacRoman yes yes no 334 0 Jhove (Rel. 1.22.1, 2019-04-17) Date: 2023-11-09 02:31:48 CET RepresentationInformation: pmc_10604195.pdf ReportingModule: PDF-hul, Rel. 1.12.1 (2019-04-17) LastModified: 2023-11-08 02:28:12 CET Size: 3729756 Format: PDF Version: 1.7 Status: Well-Formed and valid SignatureMatches: PDF-hul MIMEtype: application/pdf PDFMetadata: Objects: 546 FreeObjects: 1 IncrementalUpdates: 0 DocumentCatalog: PageLayout: SinglePage PageMode: UseNone Outlines: Item: Title: Introduction Destination: edu.harvard.hul.ois.jhove.module.pdf.PdfSimpleObject@4d3167f4 Item: Title: Method Destination: edu.harvard.hul.ois.jhove.module.pdf.PdfSimpleObject@ed9d034 Item: Title: Results Destination: edu.harvard.hul.ois.jhove.module.pdf.PdfSimpleObject@6121c9d6 Item: Title: Discussion Destination: edu.harvard.hul.ois.jhove.module.pdf.PdfSimpleObject@87f383f Item: Title: References Destination: edu.harvard.hul.ois.jhove.module.pdf.PdfSimpleObject@4eb7f003 Info: Title: A Classification Bias and an Exclusion Bias Jointly Overinflated the Estimation of Publication Biases in Bilingualism Research Author: Evelina Leivada Subject: A publication bias has been argued to affect the fate of results in bilingualism research. It was repeatedly suggested that studies presenting evidence for bilingual advantages are more likely to be published compared to studies that do not report results in favor of the bilingual advantage hypothesis. This work goes back to the original claim and re-examines both the dataset and the classification of the studies that were employed. We find that the exclusion of published works such as doctoral dissertations, book chapters, and conference proceedings from the original dataset significantly inflated the presumed publication bias. Moreover, the estimation of the publication bias was affected by a classification bias that uses a mega-category that consists of both null and negative outcomes. Yet finding evidence for a bilingual disadvantage is not synonymous with obtaining a result indistinguishable from zero. Consequently, grouping together null and negative findings in a mega-category has various ramifications, not only for the estimation of the presumed publication bias but also for the field’s ability to appreciate the insofar hidden correlations between bilingual advantages and disadvantages. Tracking biases that inflate scientific results is important, but it is not enough. The next step is recognizing the nested Matryoshka doll effect of bias-within-bias, and this entails raising awareness for one’s own bias blind spots in science. 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