Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Science of the Total Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv Revealing the management of municipal textile waste and citizen practices: The case of Catalonia Gemma Morell-Delgado a, Laura Talens Peiró a, *, Susana Toboso-Chavero a, b, c a Sostenipra Research Group (2021SGR 00734), Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA-UAB, ’Maria de Maeztu’ unit of excellence CEX2019-000940-M), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain b Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands c Integral Design and Management, Department of Materials, Mechanics, Management & Design, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T • Citizens assume specific textile waste containers for reuse rather than recycling. • Textile waste containers collect munic­ ipal textile waste in better condition. • Separate collection of textile waste emits 40 % less CO2 eq than no separation. • About 90 % of municipal textile waste from Catalonia ends up incinerated/ landfilled. • In Catalonia, at least half of textile for reuse and recycling is untraced exported. A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Editor: Paola Verlicchi Although the number of studies assessing the textile sector is increasing, only a few focus on its waste man­ agement. This study aims to shed light on current textile waste disposal practices and account for their envi­ Keywords: ronmental impact. To do so, a combination of citizen surveying and environmental quantitative tools, such as Textile waste material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, are used to assess municipal textile waste in Catalonia in 2020. Carbon footprint The results show that only approximately 10 % of municipal textile waste is separately collected, while 90 % is Municipal solid waste landfilled/incinerated. Of the 10 % of textiles collected separately, almost 40 % are prepared for reuse and Material flow analysis Consumer behaviour recycled in Catalonia and Spain, approximately 40 % are exported for reuse and recycling in Asia, Africa and the Life cycle assessment rest of Europe, and the remaining 20 % are incinerated or landfilled, stocked or treated as improper waste. The carbon footprint generated by 1 t of textile waste managed by unseparated collection is 353 kg CO2 eq, which almost double that of 1 t of textile waste collected separately: 207 kg CO2 eq. The results also show that the emissions of textiles collected separately could be considerably reduced by minimizing their exports. The con­ clusions indicate that a proper course of action includes raising awareness about textile waste management and secondhand buying habits among citizens while investing in better sorting and local recycling technologies to * Corresponding author. E-mail address: laura.talens@uab.cat (L. Talens Peiró). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168093 Received 12 December 2022; Received in revised form 20 October 2023; Accepted 22 October 2023 Available online 23 October 2023 0048-9697/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc-nd/4.0/). G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 reduce exports. Identifying the existing limitations to creating a local reuse and recycling textile sector is crucial to reduce its carbon footprint. 1. Introduction although most of it is downcycled. Interviews with experts and some technical reports estimate that <0.1 % of postconsumer TW is effectively In recent years, the textile sector has become very popular among reused and recycled by the fashion industry itself (Ellen MacArthur environmental concerns, as it is estimated to account for 10 % of global Foundation, 2017). In developed countries, textiles that are defined as carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (Juanga-Labayen et al., 2022; Niinimäki ‘prepared for reuse’ and recycling are normally exported to low-middle et al., 2020). Extensive data exist about the environmental impacts income countries (Lu, 2019), such as Africa for reuse and Asia for generated in the production, consumption, and use stages of clothing recycling (Sheng, 2015). The amount of exported textile effectively (Daystar et al., 2019; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Global Fashion reused and recycled and the amount directly landfilled are uncertain Agenda and The Boston Consulting Group, 2017; Gözet et al., 2021; (Cobbing et al., 2022). Overall, the information consulted suggests Niinimäki et al., 2020). In 2018, the major greenhouse gas (GHG) mismanagement of postconsumer TW according to the waste prevention emissions of textiles were related to the production of materials (38 %), hierarchy defined in 2008/98/EC (European Parliament and Council of the energy for dyeing and finishing textiles (29 %) and the energy for the European Union, 2008). The lack of proper TW management results laundering during the use phase (20 %) (McKinsey and Company and from poor information about the most appropriate management prac­ Global Fashion Agenda, 2020). These emissions will continue to rise in tices and influences citizen practices in TW disposal (Coskun and the future unless prevention measures are put in place (Boykoff et al., Basaran, 2019; Laitala, 2014; Rotimi et al., 2021). Additionally, MTW 2021; Niinimäki et al., 2020). managers present difficulties in accurately and efficiently managing To prevent these emissions, improvements in the production and use input and output flows (Kazancoglu et al., 2020). In general, postcon­ stages are necessary, as well as in other life cycle stages such as waste sumer TW remains an untapped resource in EU countries. management. McKinsey estimated that the end-of-use phase contributed In light of the above information, it is necessary to develop a more 3 % to the overall GHG emissions (McKinsey and Company and Global accurate analysis of the EoL management of MTW, as mentioned in the Fashion Agenda, 2020). However, other authors suggest that improved EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles (European Commission management of textile waste (TW) could contribute more importantly to and Directorate-General for Environment, 2022). Such a study will help reducing the overall environmental impacts. For instance, reuse prac­ understand the current practices for its disposal, collection and treat­ tices could reduce the production of textiles from raw fibres and thus ment, as well as identify potential improvements. This is especially their related energy use (Sandin and Peters, 2018). An increase of 12 % relevant since MTW will be separately collected in the coming years, as in reuse and 15 % in recycling should reduce climate change impact by announced by the European Commission (European Commission and 8 % in the European Union (EU) (Beton et al., 2014). Most importantly, Directorate-General for Environment, 2020; Jefatura del Estado, 2022). reuse and recycling practices could contribute to reducing the amount of Improvements in current waste management systems depend not only TW to landfills and incineration. Therefore, a more complete and on technical aspects but also on citizen engagement for their effective comprehensive analysis of the management of TW at the end of life implementation. As a result, a combination of social and environmental (EoL) to understand the feasibility of improving reuse and recycling is methodologies is proposed to respond to two specific research objec­ necessary to reduce the environmental impacts across the entire value tives. First, a survey campaign is developed to obtain a better under­ chain (Nencková et al., 2020). standing of current citizen practices on MTW disposal in Catalonia. The The availability of data on the EoL routes for textiles is limited (Beton outcome aims to identify the existing difficulties in increasing the cur­ et al., 2014; Van Rensburg et al., 2020). Understanding the management rent separate collection rates and minimizing the amount of TW in un­ of TW, including sorting, reusing, and recycling, is key to identifying separated MTW (UMTW). Second, a combination of material flow potential areas of improvement and shedding light on the current analysis (MFA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) is performed to quantify environmental impacts generated by the sector (Nørup et al., 2018). the MTW flows and their respective environmental impacts. The results Accounting for environmental impacts is also relevant to emphasizing are later used to discuss the need to advance towards harmonized the need to increase current TW collection rates, reducing the amount of collection systems for TW, especially as their amount is expected to in­ clothes to landfill/incineration, and generating a behavioral change to crease as a result of new regulation in the EU. Additionally, we provide a reduce the amount of purchases and to optimize the use of clothes first estimate of the carbon footprint of the current TW management. (Juanga-Labayen et al., 2022). TW is generated at different life cycle stages across the value chain of 2. Materials and methods textiles. Indeed, one of the difficulties when considering TW is the lack of a harmonized definition (Palma et al., 2023). Juanga-Labayen et al. 2.1. Case study: MTW management in Catalonia (2022) define TW as “discarded or unwanted material from the pro­ duction and use of fiber, textile and clothing, which can be categorized MTW in Catalonia, a region in northeastern Spain, is collected in into three types, pre-consumer, post-consumer, and industrial textile separate MTW (SMTW) containers in the street and civic amenity sites waste” (Juanga-Labayen et al., 2022, p.176). Postconsumer TW includes managed by local entities. MTW disposal in SMTW containers and civic all types of garments (mainly clothes and footwear) and house/interior amenity sites is considered a correct source separation practice. Also textiles (bedlinen, towels, tablecloths, curtains, etc.) (Domina and Koch, considered a correct source separation practice is the recirculation of 1997). Postconsumer TW is also the main typology in municipal TW TW via donations between acquaintances or NGOs, second-hand selling, (MTW). and other citizen-driven initiatives contributing to the lifespan extension The management of postconsumer TW in EU countries remains a of textiles. However, these flows are not captured by official municipal novel unexplored topic (Nørup et al., 2019). Its separate collection solid waste (MSW) system statistics. Therefore, these practices have system is not yet harmonized across the EU (Palma et al., 2023). Indeed, been excluded from the scope of the study. MTW occurring in the mixed most postconsumer TW is collected along with mixed municipal waste municipal waste with code 200301 (Eurostat, 2010) and other fractions (Gözet et al., 2021). As a result, it is estimated that 73 % of postcon­ as organic or packaging—this is UMTW—is considered an incorrect sumer TW is burned or landfilled (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). disposal practice as UMTW directly ends up burned or landfilled. In The remaining amount is declared to be prepared for reuse or recycling, Catalonia, according to data from 2020, SMTW formal collection and 2 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 sorting was developed by eight authorized managers to carry out such sorting plants. This is done by combining material flow analysis (MFA) management: Cartaes, Ecosol, Emaús, Engrunes, Formació i Treball, and life cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies. MFA is used to quantify Humana, Roba Amiga and Solidança (Agència de Residus de Catalunya, the flows of SMTW across the diverse EoL management stages. LCA is 2020a). MTW in Catalonia is managed by independent private organ­ applied to evaluate for the first time the potential global warming izations—many of which are socially based (Rezero, 2018)—as there is emissions, given as CO2 equivalents, generated by the current manage­ no Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) scheme specific for TW in ment of MTW in Catalonia. Outputs of this study could contribute to the place. Citizens consider collection through private social organizations a current development of the Catalan Circular Fashion Pact (Generalitat charitable gesture instead of a way of reusing or recycling textiles de Catalunya, 2022), which is of utmost importance in Catalonia. (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2022). According to the latest MSW data for Catalonia, MTW represents 2.2. Social and environmental analyses 4.11 % of the mass of the total waste contained in an MSW reference bag (Generalitat de Catalunya Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat and As shown in Fig. 1, the initial steps of the method started by con­ Agència de Residus de Catalunya, 2014). In 2019, Catalonia generated ducting bibliographic and field research on TW management. This was 165,993 t of MTW (21.6 kg/inhabitant), but only 18,521 t (2.4 kg/ useful to set the basis and the framework of the study. As part of the field inhabitant) were collected via SMTW collection systems (Llorens, 2020). research, numerous actors involved in MTW management were con­ Therefore, from all MTW generated in Catalonia, 88.8 %—which is tacted and interviewed (see Fig. A1 in the Supporting Information SI). UMTW—ended up mixed in other fractions, consequently not separately Two quantitative analyses were combined to draw some initial conclu­ collected and sent to landfill or incineration (Llorens, 2020). UMTW is sions about the EoL management of MTW in Catalonia. The first analysis primarily present in the mixed-fraction, followed by the organic frac­ consisted of a statistical analysis of the results obtained from a survey tion, the packaging fraction, and less commonly, others (Agència de about MTW disposal practices by citizens. It helped determine citizens’ Residus de Catalunya ARC, personal communication, June 11, 2022). awareness and practices when discarding MTW for its possible reuse and These data highlight the lack of systems improving MTW capture and recycling. This information could help managers predict future MTW information helping citizens make a more appropriate decision when and SMTW flows. The second analysis used the environmental assess­ discarding MTW, although the Waste Directive 2018/851 sets that all ment tools MFA and LCA to analyse data declared by MTW managers Member States must ensure separate collection of textiles by 2025 available in the Annual Waste Declaration for Managers (DARIG) for (European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2018). 2020. The combination of MFA-LCA helped quantify the significance of Moreover, previous studies have already investigated citizens’ behav­ MTW flows and their potential global warming emissions due to current iour and management of MTW at a regional level and highlighted low MTW management practices. Both methodological approaches helped to collection of SMTW as a key factor influencing the environmental im­ obtain a more complete view and understanding of current practices of pacts of the textile industry (Laitala, 2014; Nencková et al., 2020; MTW management in Catalonia and to identify potential hotspots of Polajnar Horvat and Šrimpf Vendramin, 2021). Analogously, this paper improvement. Their combination represents a novel framework appli­ aims to shed light on MTW management practices by citizens in cable to other waste streams likely to be collected separately in the Catalonia. future. According to Nohales (2021), in Catalonia, 71 % of the SMTW was prepared for reuse, 23 % was recycled, and 6 % was valorized via energy 2.2.1. Statistical analysis of current social practices of MTW management recovery or landfilling in 2019. However, Llorens (2020) interviewed A survey was conducted to learn about the current practices of MTW MTW managers who highlighted that SMTW output percentages may management performed by citizens in Catalonia. Similar studies at a have changed in recent years. Tracing these flows and their verification regional scale had previously been developed. Polajnar Horvat and remains difficult, if not impossible. Data from the ARC (Catalan Waste Šrimpf Vendramin (2021) and Zhang et al. (2020) were used as a Agency) (Nohales, 2021) together with current TW management prac­ reference to create the questions and answers of the survey developed tices in developed countries illustrated in the literature available lead for this analysis. The study by Nencková et al. (2020), which presented this research to deduce that a significant amount of SMTW generated in an extensive statistical methodology, was also used as a reference Catalonia is exported to low-middle income countries. Accordingly, the analysis. The resulting survey (Section B from SI) was made available via second part of this study quantifies the SMTW flows with special the EUSurvey online platform (European Commission, 2022) and was attention to the waste hierarchy and the first destinations after MTW answered by 1469 anonymous respondents. Analysis of current MTW disposal in Catalonia Literature survey and field research Including interviews with MTW managers, ARC, citizens, and other related actors in Catalonia Social assessment Environmental assessment Definition of a citizen survey Data collection from DARIG Statistical analysis of responses Material Flow Analysis (IBM SPSS statistic software) Life Cycle Assessment (SimaPro software) Identification of existing limitation to increase MTW collection rates and improvements to minimise the carbon footprint of MTW Fig. 1. Methodology used to assess the management of MTW and citizen practices in Catalonia. 3 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 The questionnaire was grouped into three parts. The first part was varies depending on the EoL management of the flow: reuse, recycling, introductory and focused on the environmental concern of respondents incineration, or landfill. And it also considered the EoL management (Table C1 of the SI, questions with codes F and G). The second part processes. For reuse and recycling, the transport distance used for the highlighted MTW disposal practices and awareness (Table C2 of the SI). assessment from sorting plants to the geographical location was that The third part included a set of questions about demographic data of the requested and provided by the Catalan government (see Table E1 of the sample for further statistical analysis (Table C1 of the SI, questions with SI). For incineration and landfill, distances were assumed based on the codes A, B, C, D and E). The questions of the first part were also eval­ location of the treatment facilities in the Catalan territory. The sorting uated as demographic data, while the questions of the second part were process was excluded due to data limitations. The UMTW system displayed separately on the computer/mobile screen, so respondents included transport of the collected waste to treatment plants and the could not read them all at a time. This strategy was used to reduce the later process of incineration or landfill. See system boundaries scheme in influence on the tone of the following questions. Fig. E1 of the SI, and assumptions of the study in Table E1 of the SI. All responses were processed and analysed with IBM SPSS statistics The assessment of the carbon footprint of current MTW management software (IBM Corp, 2021). Frequencies and percentages were calcu­ was performed using ecoinvent v3.8 (Wernet et al., 2016) and SimaPro lated for every question (Tables C1 and C2 of the SI). Answers from software (PRé Consultants, 2022). Inventory data are highly detailed in multiple choice questions were evaluated and grouped to obtain a single Table E1 of the SI. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change choice structure (Tables C3, C4, C5 and C6 of the SI). Contingency tables (IPCC) 2021 100 years – Global Warming Potential (GWP) method was between pairs of questions were created by coupling demographic var­ selected to account for the carbon footprint. The analysis was limited to iables with the questions relating to disposal behaviour. Relationships this indicator, as it is one of the most common indicators used to eval­ between these pairs were verified by the Pearson chi-square test (χ2) uate the environmental performance of systems and products and using the Monte Carlo method, as data were too large to calculate the communicate the effect on climate change. It has become an indicator exact p value, while it did not meet necessary assumptions for the frequently used to communicate environmental information to citizens asymptotic method. Therefore, the Monte Carlo method with a sample as well. size of 10,000 and a confidence level of 99 % provided unbiased esti­ mates of exact p values. Pairs of questions were statistically significant 3. Results when p values were < 0.05. To detect the nature of dependency between variables from a statistically significant pair of questions, cell-by-cell 3.1. Current practices of MTW disposal comparisons of p values were calculated from standardized residuals following (Agresti, 2002; Nencková et al., 2020). The objective of this part of the study was to identify the existing MTW disposal practices and opinions from citizens. A total of 1469 re­ 2.2.2. Environmental analysis of MTW spondents provided feedback on the survey via the EUSurvey website. A combination of MFA and LCA was used to quantify the amount of Participants presented diverse demographic characteristics relating to MTW from MTW sorting plants and its related environmental impact. gender, age, education, income, geographical context and concern about The combination of MFA and LCA has been used before to assess MSW the environment and TW (see Table C1 of the SI). Frequencies and management systems and provide environmental performance infor­ percentages of answers can be found in Tables C1 and C2 of the SI. One mation (De Meester et al., 2019; Haupt et al., 2018; Turner et al., 2016). key objective was to understand the MTW disposal practices regarding The MFA is used to perform a mass balance within the inputs and out­ their condition (questions 03 and 04 of the survey). The questions puts at the EoL stage. LCA helps estimate the potential environmental formulated to reflect on this subject are illustrated in Fig. 2. The re­ impacts generated by MTW quantities estimated by the MFA that are sponses showed that TW in worse condition (Q03) was perceived as sent to reuse, recycling, incineration with energy recovery, and waste; therefore, most citizens disposed of it in civic amenity sites landfilling. (36.76 %), in mixed-fraction containers (30.30 %) and in SMTW con­ MFA was applied to assess mass flows of SMTW collected and sorted tainers (29.53 %). In contrast, TW under better conditions (Q04) was by MTW managers in Catalonia. Data were taken from the DARIG that generally not perceived as waste. Thus, it was most discarded in SMTW MTW managers declared to the ARC in 2020. Inputs of the MFA were containers (77.87 %), followed by civic amenity sites (17.93 %). The SMTW entering Catalan sorting plants, including stocks. Output flows amount of TW in better condition disposed of in the undifferentiated were the final destinations of the resulting streams. The collected SMTW container was small (3.45 %) compared to the amount of TW in worse was classified according to the EU waste hierarchy. Final geographical condition collected in the same container. locations for reuse and recycling output flows were assumed as desti­ According to the demographic characteristics, the most significant nations declared in DARIGs by authorized managers. In this study, such variables from the statistical analysis of the responses from the survey destinations are called first geographical destinations, as it is suspected are age, concern about the environment and concern about TW gener­ that a part of output textiles could move to second or third geographical ated as an individual, as summarized in Table 1. Expanded statistical destinations (Engrunes, personal communication, March 22, 2022). results per demographic characteristic are included in Section F of the Incineration (including energy recovery) and landfilling of MTW SI. Accordingly, young citizens performed more incorrect disposal occurred in Catalonia. The input and output flows of the SMTW were practices (Tables F4 and F5 of the SI). Most likely, they were often not adjusted to ensure a consistent mass balance, as data provided by the concerned about the relevance of TW, as suggested by the results shown ARC did not allow a fully closed mass balance. A Sankey diagram in Table F12 of the SI. Citizens with no concern about TW tended to also illustrating SMTW flows was built. use incorrect disposal practices (Table F9 of the SI). According to Fig. 2, The results of the output flows from the MFA, namely, the amount of these citizens generally disposed of TW in worse condition in the un­ MTW to each final treatment, were later used in an attributional LCA to differentiated waste container. Additionally, they were sometimes un­ evaluate their potential environmental impact in terms of global aware of the closest SMTW container or civic amenity site location (see warming potential. To do so, the study assumed transport to the first Table F10 of the SI). In general, citizens concerned about environmental geographical destination or treatment plant, and final treatment choices problems disposed of their clothes more correctly than those not inter­ to SMTW in comparison with UMTW in Catalonia in 2020. The func­ ested in environmental issues (Table F8 of the SI). tional unit used was the total amount of MTW in tonnes managed in Catalonia in 2020. The reference flows were 16,653 t for SMTW and 143,899 t for UMTW (see Section D of the SI). The SMTW system included transport from the sorting plant, which 4 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 Disposal of clothes in worse condition 37.76% 30.30% 29.53% 1.65% 0.93% 0.52% 0.31% (Q03) Disposal of clothes in better condition 77.87% 17.93% 3.45% 0.23% 0.23% 0.17% 0.11% (Q04) Correct source separation practices Incorrect disposal practices Civic amenity site Mixed-fraction container MTW separate collection container Organic fraction container Glass fraction container Packaging fraction container Paper and cardboard container Fig. 2. Responses (in percentage) of the disposal of clothes in worse (question 03) and in better (question 04) condition by citizens. Table 1 p values between pairs of questions and demographic characteristics. Pairs of questions are statistically significant when p values are <0.05 (in bold). Gender Age Education Monthly Geographical Concern about Concern about income context the TW generated environment as an individual Reasons why citizens dispose of clothes (Q01) 0.000 0.000 0.045 0.003 0.393 0.231 <0.001 Practices by citizens when disposing of clothes (Q02) 0.019 0.000 0.078 0.014 0.749 0.002 0.010 Disposal choices of clothes in worse condition (Q03) 0.792 0.000 0.153 0.179 0.101 0.002 0.015 Disposal choices of clothes in better condition (Q04) 0.695 0.105 0.510 0.573 0.220 0.005 0.003 Knowledge about SMTW containers and civic amenity site 0.144 0.000 0.239 0.283 0.000 0.000 0.000 location (Q05) 3.2. EoL management of MTW result of the MFA. Textiles for reuse and recycling sold in Catalonia (25.51 %) was as significant as exportation for reuse and recycling to 3.2.1. Material flow analysis Asia (25.50 %) due to major exports to Pakistan and the United Arab A comprehensive material flow diagram for SMTW management in Emirates. Section G of the SI gives a detailed description of the first Catalonia is illustrated in Fig. 3. The focus is on (1) the sorting process geographical destinations of these flows. carried out in MTW sorting plants, (2) the output to SMTW according to the waste hierarchy, and (3) the first geographical destination of textiles 3.2.2. Life cycle assessment for reuse and recycling. In Catalonia in 2020, according to MTW reference flows (Section D of In 2020, the total amount of SMTW input flows to Catalan sorting the SI), 10.37 % was net SMTW, while 89.63 % was UMTW. As briefly plants was a gross value of 18,630 t. Approximately 78 % was sorted. An explained in Section 2.2.2, the carbon footprint was selected as a good important part was directly sold without previous classification (13.70 environmental indicator to account for the potential CO2 emissions of %) or kept as stock (8.99 %). Such quantity of stock was due to an in­ the EoL of MTW. The carbon footprint of transport to the first crease in clothing disposal by citizens during the COVID-19 situation geographical destination and waste treatment of SMTW was estimated (Engrunes, personal communication, March 22, 2022). Indeed, the stock to be 3440 t CO2 eq, in comparison with 50,750 t CO2 eq for transport almost tripled when compared to the 2019 output stock values (Agència and final treatment of UMTW. This leads to 207 kg CO2 eq per tonne of de Residus de Catalunya, 2020a). The net output flow was 16,653 t. SMTW and 353 kg CO2 eq per tonne of UMTW. Therefore, the total Textiles for reuse was the principal output (79.62 %), while landfilling carbon footprint of waste transport and treatment of MTW from Cata­ (4.52 %) was more frequent than incineration with energy recovery lonia in 2020 was estimated to be 54,190 t CO2 eq. According to Table 2, (2.96 %) and recycling (2.29 %). From the total input flows entering the <10 % of MTW was prepared for reuse and recycling; thus, >90 % of sorting plants, almost 40 % were prepared for reuse and recycled in MTW was burned or landfilled, contributing to >94 % in terms of Catalonia and Spain, approximately 40 % were exported for reuse and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The environmental impacts associated recycling in Asia, Africa and the rest of Europe, and the remaining 20 % with the transportation of textiles for reuse and recycling exported were incinerated or landfilled, stocked or treated as improper waste. outside the Iberian Peninsula were 2433 t CO2 eq. These contributed From the output flows prepared for reuse and recycling, and regarding 70.72 % of the total carbon footprint of SMTW management in Cata­ first geographical destinations, approximately 50 % of flows were at lonia. While transport had a significant environmental performance in least exported outside the Iberian Peninsula, being this the most striking outputs for reuse and recycling due to exportation, incineration with 5 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 Input flows 18,630 tonnes (100%) SMTW entering Catalan sorting plants in 2020 Sorting process Output flows by waste hierarchy PxR and recycling output flows Exported output flows by country by first geographical destination 1 SMTW collected in 2020 2 SMTW without sorting 5 Prepared for reuse 10 Catalonia and stocks at 01/01/2020 2,553 tonnes (13.70%) 14,833 tonnes (79.62%) 4,690 tonnes (25.51%) 18,383 tonnes (98.67%) 3 Sorted SMTW 6 Recycling 11 Iberian Peninsula 14,432 tonnes (77.47%) 426 tonnes (2.29%) 2,674 tonnes (14.35%) 4 Stock not sorted 7 Incineration with 12 Europe 1,638 tonnes (8.79%) energy recovery 1,398 tonnes (7.51%) 552 tonnes (2.96%) 13 Africa 8 Controlled landfilling 1,458 tonnes (7.83%) 843 tonnes (4.52%) 14 Asia 9 Total stock 4,687 tonnes (25.50%) 1,675 tonnes (8.99%) 15 South America 22 tonnes (0.12%) 10 Lithuania Luxemburg 5 Georgia 2 Romania 11 France 1 3 Switzerland 12 Slovakia Republic of Benin 13 Ghana Mali 14 Gambia Cameroon 6 Melilla 7 15 5 6 7 8 A United Arab Emirates 8 4 Net output flows 16,653 tonnes Pakistan A B 9 3,458 tonnes (18.56%) (89.39%) A B Venezuela A Equivalent thickness to 100 tonnes Equivalent thickness to 1,000 tonnes A Adjusted mass balance flows B Improper waste flows Fig. 3. SMTW flows for Catalonia in 2020. Table 2 Amount of MTW and its potential global warming potential (CO2 eq emissions) generated by its EoL management in Catalonia. Waste hierarchy levels Textile waste (t) Textile waste (%) Carbon footprint (t CO2 eq) Carbon footprint (%) Prepared for reuse 14,833 9.24 2814 5.19 - Transport 2814 5.19 - Treatment* n/a Recycling 426 0.27 146 0.27 - Transport 114 0.21 - Treatment 32 0.06 Incineration with energy recovery 52,397 32.63 6183 11.41 - Transport 52 0.10 - Treatment 6131 11.31 Controlled landfilling 92,897 57.86 45,047 83.13 - Transport 85 0.16 - Treatment 44,962 82.97 Total 160,553 100.00 54,190 100.00 * Note that an important quantity of textile prepared for reuse is exported to low-middle income countries, and the treatment processes performed in these countries are unknown. Thus, environmental impacts could arise in the preparation for reuse treatment, as the quantity of textiles for reuse that will end up being sold as second- hand or discarded is not known. Neither how these discarded flows will be managed. energy recovery and landfill contributed the most to the carbon 4.1. Improving current citizen MTW management practices footprint. According to the outcomes of this study, a low percentage of citizens 4. Discussion are aware that they incorrectly dispose of their TW in the mixed-fraction container (ARC, personal communication, June 11, 2022; Llorens, This section discusses the current practices of MTW by citizens and 2020). The collected responses explain the high share of MTW found in waste managers with the objective of identifying current limitations. the mixed-fraction container, as almost 50 % of respondents disposed of Then, we provided further insight into how the current MTW could be TW in the mixed-waste fraction (Table C2 in the SI, questions 02 and improved in the near future for a smooth implementation of the 03). Although these seem to be two different disposal practices, the re­ mandatory separate collection of TW in 2025. sults are the same: A considerable fraction of TW ends up in the mixed- 6 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 waste fraction. According to survey results, an awareness campaign communication, April 26, 2022). As a result, the amount of MTW about the need to improve the collection of MTW should focus on the collected in 2020 (8.99 %) tripled when compared to 2019 figures. Due share of citizens who are less concerned about TW, namely, citizens aged to limitations in terms of physical space, logistics and financial prob­ under 35. This study detected major opinion deviance depending on the lems, a significant amount of SMTW was directly sold without any prior condition of the clothing and thus the understanding of TW by citizens. sorting (13.70 %), although this practice was not preferred by MTW A harmonized definition of TW together with correct disposal practices companies (Engrunes, personal communication, March 22, 2022; should be better communicated to citizens. Humana, personal communication, June 15, 2022; Solidança, personal A portion of MTW in good condition has usually been collected by communication, June 17, 2022) or for the traceability of the MTW. In­ NGOs for charity (Manshoven et al., 2019; Mistra Future Fashion, 2019). vestments to increase the current collection and treatment capacities of In Catalonia, SMTW is currently collected by eight social organizations existing MTW sorting plants shall be made, as MTW is predicted to in­ (Agència de Residus de Catalunya, 2020a). Thus, SMTW containers are crease considerably in the coming years. still perceived as an installation for a social service (Generalitat de Attention should also be paid to enhancing local market demand for Catalunya, 2022). Fig. 2 suggests this statement, as SMTW containers reuse and recycling and investing in sorting and recycling technologies. are primarily used for MTW assumed to be in good condition and thus Major exports for reuse detected in this study partially occur because of likely to be reused. However, clothes in worse condition are collected via the lack of a strong secondhand market. The tiny recycling flows (2.29 SMTW containers in civic amenity sites and mixed-fraction containers. %) are due to the lack of automatic sorting technologies that can detect This fact also confirms the low collection rate of net SMTW (10.37 %) material compositions and the use of human-based criteria. Addition­ compared to higher percentages of UMTW (89.63 %). As far as the ally, textile exports for recycling are high because of the limited avail­ objective of other MSW fraction containers focuses on recycling—rather ability of local recycling technologies (Solidança, personal than reuse—and these present higher collection rates (Agència de Resi­ communication, June 14, 2022). Moreover, textile manufacturers dus de Catalunya, 2022; Barcelona Regional, 2020), a clarification on currently prefer TW from preconsumption rather than from post­ whether SMTW is collected for reuse but also recycling is in order. consumption (i.e., Ferre Yarns, Iaios, Hilaturas Arnau). Therefore, Currently, citizens separate MTW based on their own judgement, as export of these materials for recycling is emerging as the only alternative information is unclear. Indeed, it was detected that even the information to avoid finalist treatments. displayed by an ARC website (Generalitat de Catalunya Departament Regarding textile exports for reuse and recycling, current available d’Acció Climàtica Alimentació i Agenda Rural and Agència de Residus data refers to first geographical destinations where these flows are de Catalunya, n.d.) about the correct disposal practice of MSW is exported. During the present research, we found that companies located ambiguous on communicating the most adequate path for MTW. in Catalonia and the Iberian Peninsula buy textiles for reuse and recy­ Enhancing the existing SMTW collection system is a key factor in cling from Catalan-based companies to later sell them to international improving the SMTW collection rate. Alternative methods for the markets (Engrunes, personal communication, March 22, 2022). This collection of SMTWs should be further investigated, as public space might also be frequent in companies located in Europe, which in fact are occupation is critical and limited in cities (Circular Fashion Pact, per­ already importing textiles for reuse from Catalonia. An educated guess sonal communication, January 2022). On the one hand, according to suggests that exported flows could increase up to 75 % if exported tex­ Hole and Hole (2020), existing recycling policies for MSW fractions can tiles for reuse and recycling moved across two locations before being be applied to MTW. Struk (2017) showed that curbside collection of really reused or recycled. These journeys of the flows between more than waste improved paper and plastic separation compared to drop-off sites. one destination would result in higher environmental impacts associated Thus, increasing the number of SMTW containers per inhabitants and with the SMTW EoL stage: exporting transport already contributed improving their accessibility (seven days a week at any hour) are 70.72 % to SMTW assuming that SMTW was treated in the locations that necessary. According to survey results, 25 % of respondents lived >10 MTW managers declared to the ARC in 2020. min away from the closest SMTW collection container, and 8.2 % did not Therefore, working on local business models aimed at reuse and know the location of the closest SMTW collection container (Table C2 in recycling at the level of the Iberian Peninsula is one core issue. On the the SI, question 05). Collection rates could also be improved by the one hand, because operating at this scale generates lower environmental coexistence of different systems. For example, the Circular Fashion Pact impact: as already discussed, exporting textiles for reuse and recycling aims to collect MTW at points of sale (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2022), generates emissions associated to transport. On the other hand, as although according to survey results, this is not a common disposal exported flows are currently not tracked, there is still a high uncertainty practice (Table C2 in the SI, question 05). For successfully implementing about their real carbon footprint once they reach importing countries. these new collection systems, communication and education campaigns This study assumes that textiles for reuse and for recycling are effec­ are also key (Hole and Hole, 2020). Other potential points of MTW tively fully reused and fully recycled. However, further analysis collection are public infrastructures such as schools, universities, su­ exploring how the carbon footprint varies depending on the final permarkets, and industrial sites, among others. The latter could prevent treatment of exported flows would be advisable. It has been similarly containers from being vandalized and therefore ensure a better condi­ done in works from other fields, which are based on various scenarios tion of SMTW when reaching MTW sorting plants. Other studies have (Reinert et al., 2021; Wernet et al., 2016). Analysis shall also be further successfully used reward schemes and a weight-based tax system to in­ promoted when improved traceability and more data on SMTW becomes crease the collection rates of MSW (Hole and Hole, 2020). available. Additionally, although the focus of this study is on environ­ mental impacts, social impacts regarding the labour rights of those who 4.2. EoL management of MTW flows by waste managers will receive textile output for reuse and recycling (Brink et al., 2021) arise from flows being exported. Catalonia must intensely pursue improving SMTW collection, as UMTW is estimated to cost up to 30 million euros to local authorities 5. Conclusions (Agència de Residus de Catalunya, 2020b; Nohales, 2021). The results from this study also show higher GHG emissions per tonne of UMTW This study examined the EoL management of MTW in Catalonia in (353 kg CO2 eq) than the emissions per tonne of SMTW (207 kg CO2 eq). 2020. To do so, a novel methodological framework combining the social However, if the amount of SMTW in dedicated containers suddenly analysis of citizens’ practices relating to MTW disposal and the envi­ increased, the existing MTW collection enterprises would not be able to ronmental assessment of MTW flows was proposed. This methodological manage it due to capacity limitations. For example, in 2020, the COVID- framework is applicable to other EU territories and will allow replica­ 19 situation made citizens discard more clothes (ARC, personal bility of this work in these contexts. 7 G. Morell-Delgado et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 168093 On the one hand, outcomes from the survey of 1469 citizens showed Engrunes, Miquel Vidal from Formació i Treball and Joan Carles Montes that, significantly, young citizens and citizens less concerned about TW from Humana for providing data and clarifications about separate and the environment had worse disposal practices. Furthermore, MTW municipal textile waste collected and sorted in Catalonia. Inèdit disposal practices suggestively differed depending on clothing condi­ Innovació S.L. for their guidance on municipal solid waste quantifica­ tion. Also, surveying resulted a useful method to learn about citizen tion. Elisava School of Design and Engineering and numerous entities practices when disposing textile waste. A further study identifying within the Catalan territory which helped to spread the survey among textile disposal practices once the re-casted EU directive on waste (EU/ the population. 2018/851) is in place would be useful to understand possible limitations This paper has received financial support from the “María de of collection processes and identify potential improvements. Maeztu” Programme for Units of Excellence of the Spanish Ministry of On the other hand, the results from the combined MFA-LCA showed a Science and Innovation (CEX2019-000940-M), and the Secretaria Gen­ low net SMTW collection rate (10.38 %) compared to UMTW, which was eral de Recerca i Universitats from the departament of Recerca i Uni­ mainly disposed of in the mixed-fraction container (89.62 %). SMTW versitats (Generalitat de Catalunya), with project numbers contributed 207 kg CO2 eq per tonne, and UMTW contributed 353 kg 2020PANDE00021 and 2021SGR00734, and the ‘Interdisciplinary CO2 eq per tonne, while the total GHG emissions associated with the Networking for a Sustainable and Circular Economy (No 101016888)’ Catalan MTW EoL stage were 54,190 t CO2 eq. <10 % of MTW was project funded by the SMART-ER ECIU programe. We also acknowledge classified for reuse and recycling, and >90 % of MTW ended up incin­ funding from the AGAUR-FI Joan Oró grant (2023 FI-1 00329) of the erating with energy recovery or landfilling. From SMTW, the major Secretaria d’Universitats i Recerca from the department of Recerca i output was textiles for reuse, and half of the textile flows for reuse and Universitats of the Generalitat de Catalunya and of the European Social recycling were exported outside the Iberian Peninsula. Pakistan was the Fund Plus (ESF+), and the Talent UAB Santander program. country that received the most exports from Catalonia. If more export transactions were considered, the total amount of textile exported could Appendix A. Supplementary data increase up to 75 %, added the fact that an unknown percentage of exported flows for reuse and recycling might end up landfilled. Data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. availability for a more detailed assessment of the environmental impacts org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168093. associated with exports is currently nonexistent. Further research shall shed light on the quantities of exported textiles considering real trade References and their respective treatment. Additionally, a complete LCA could be relevant, as well as a dynamic analysis over a period of various years. Agència de Residus de Catalunya, 2020a. 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