The Future Is in the Younger Generations: Baka Children in Southeast Cameroon Have Extensive Knowledge on Medicinal Plants Sandrine Gallois1 , Tinde van Andel2,3,4, Appolinaire Ambassa5, and Stijn van Bemmel4 1 Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain 2 Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 3 Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, the Netherlands 4 Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands 5 Baka Community - Le Bosquet, Le Bosquet, Cameroon *Corresponding author; e-mail: Sandrine.Gallois@uab.cat Abstract In the context of global change, understanding the knowledge and values given to plants is crucial for choosing relevant approaches towards a more sustainable future. Children are central holders of ethnobotanical knowledge, yet they are still under-considered in ethnobotany. Our study explored the medicinal knowledge of children of the Baka, forager-horticulturalists from Cameroon. We assessed the diversity of medicinal plants they know, the different ailments treated, and whether they could name complete herbal recipes. Using a mixed-methods approach, we combined ex situ interviews (freelisting and knowledge surveys) with in situ methods (walk-in-the-woods trips with voucher collection) with 106 children from 5 to 16 years old. They listed 128 local names of medicinal plants, which we linked to 126 different plant species. While the ex situ and in situ methods had some overlap in the diversity of medicinal plants reported, they also revealed substantial knowledge unique to each method. Our insights provide further evidence of children’s considerable ethnobotanical knowledge and the extent to which different field methods can retrieve such knowledge. We discuss the methodological tools to be developed with and for children to put childhood at the center stage of ethnobotanical approaches for the future. Key Words: Ethnobotany, Indigenous Peoples, Congo Basin, Ethnomedicine, Pygmies Introduction (Balding and Williams 2016; Beery et al. 2023). Understanding the many dimensions behind this In the context of global change, human connec- connection embraces values, knowledge, prac- tion with nature is considered as a leverage point tices, and beliefs. It requires an interdisciplinary for conservation initiatives and choosing relevant approach, in which ethnobiologists have a signif- approaches towards a more sustainable future icant role to play (Fernández-Llamazares et al. 2021). Within this disconnection with nature, plants suffer from an increasing human igno- Received: 30 May 2023; accepted: 4 September rance, which impacts not only the individual but 2023; published online ___________ also society, restraining, for instance, the achieve- ments of political initiatives like the Sustainable Supplementary Information The online version contains Development Goals (Amprazis and Papadopou- supplementary material available at https://​doi.​org/​10.​ lou 2020). This phenomenon, known as plant 1007/​s12231-​023-​09589-4. blindness or plant awareness disparity (Parsley Economic Botany, XX(X), 2023, pp. 1–17 Vol.:(0123456789) © 2023, The New York Botanical Garden [VOL Economic Botany 2020), is driven by many factors, including a lack 2011; Quinlan 2019; Stepp 2010), there is still of experiences and knowledge sharing related to little known on the differences in qualitative plants during childhood (Lohr and Pearson-Mims and quantitative data collected with these 2005). methods in the same group of respondents, and Children are not only future adults, but whether a mixed-methods approach is relevant as they relate with, experience, and know for working with children. their surroundings, they are also active Here, we compare different methods to holders of ethnobotanical knowledge. This document Baka children’s medicinal plant is especially true in small-scale societies knowledge in southeast Cameroon. Medicinal that heavily depend on their access to the plants form the most explored domains in natural environment for their subsistence. In ethnobotany (Torres-Avilez et al. 2016), but different socio-cultural contexts, ecological their use is seldom studied among children and botanical knowledge is acquired early (Lew-Levy et al. 2017). The few studies on during childhood (Lew-Levy et al. 2017). children’s medicinal knowledge, for instance, Specific children’s knowledge exists that is those among Caribbean horticulturalists not shared with adults, and the effect of age in Dominica (Quinlan et al. 2016), the and gender on knowledge distribution within Raramuri in Mexico (Wyndham 2010), rural childhood varies according to the domain communities in Niger (Guimbo et al. 2011), (Gallois and Reyes-García 2018; Porcher et al. or Maroons in Suriname (Van’t Klooster et al. 2022; Wyndham 2010). For instance, among 2019), concluded that children did not know the Baka and the Betsileo from Madagascar, that much, compared to adults. Intracultural knowledge on wild edible plants do not vary distribution of medicinal knowledge is shaped according to children’s gender, but Baka boys by different factors within adulthood, such as tend to know more about animals than girls prestige, age, and gender (Díaz-Reviriego because of their higher involvement in hunting et al. 2016; Torres-Avilez et al. 2016; (Gallois et al. 2017; Porcher et al. 2022). Wyndham et al. 2010), but the influence Many small-scale societies are facing of such factors is not clearly known within serious changes in their culture and livelihood, childhood. (potential) erosion and loss of ecological Our study aimed to explore medicinal plant knowledge and a decreasing interest of the knowledge among Baka children (floristic youth towards their own culture (Fernández- diversity, health issues, and recipes) and to Llamazares et al. 2021; Gallois and Reyes- assess how different methods best capture García 2018). Also, children are often such knowledge. We expected Baka children overlooked in ethnobotanical research. Their to have limited knowledge of medicinal plant knowledge is underestimated, and little species, recipes to prepare herbal remedies attention is given to their relation, perception, and diseases. We hypothesized that their and knowledge of plants (Gallois and Reyes- knowledge would vary according to gender García 2018). There is a need to explore and age and would be restricted to childhood how children relate to nature and to develop ailments, as reported among Mexican children research methods adapted to them, embracing (Jiménez-Balam et al. 2019). We predicted the multidimensionality of human-nature finding variation in the amount and diversity of interrelations. Collecting empirical evidence medicinal knowledge collected through ex situ of children’s medicinal plant knowledge helps and in situ methods. We hypothesized that ex to understand how the people-plant relation situ interviews would yield less information on builds up during childhood. Mixed-methods medicinal plants, as they are based on memory, approaches seem to be the most appropriate while in situ walk-in-the-woods trips in the here, as they catch a larger diversity of biodiverse environment with many visual knowledge than only ex situ or in situ methods stimuli would result in more reported plant (Flachs 2018). While both methods have species and uses (Miranda et al. 2007; Gallois strengths and limitations (Nolan and Turner et al. 2021). 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE Methods is generally low, mostly due to the mismatch of educational programs and schedules with the The Baka livelihoods of the Baka and teachers’ absentee- ism. Learning ecological knowledge is done Formerly known as “Pygmies,” the Baka are through observation, imitation, and playful forager-horticulturalists of about 30,000 people activities. Also, as children are autonomous living mainly in Cameroon, and to a lesser extent from an early age and get involved in peer group in the Republic of the Congo, the Central Afri- activities without adult supervision, horizontal can Republic, and the Democratic Republic of transmission between children is an important the Congo (Leclerc 2012). This region has ever- pathway for exchanging knowledge related to green and moist semi-deciduous forest between wild plants and animals (Gallois et al. 2018). 300 and 600 m.a.s.l. with a tropical humid climate, an average temperature of 25 °C, and 1500 mm of annual precipitation, divided in two Study Sites rainy and two dry seasons (Leclerc 2012). The Baka used to live as nomadic foragers in small We collected data during two fieldwork camps, interacting with sedentary Bantu farm- periods: June–July and October–November ers for trade and agricultural labor. For about 2022, in two different Baka settlements of the 60 years, the Baka were forced to reduce their Haut Nyong Province: Le Bosquet and Kungu mobility and change their subsistence strate- (Fig. 1). We chose these settlements to repre- gies. They settled along logging roads, closer to sent the variability in settlements’ size, access Bantu populations and natural resources traders, to healthcare, integration into the market, and adopted agriculture, and gained access to school contact with the Bantu-speaking Nzime popu- and health services (Leclerc 2012). Despite the lation. Le Bosquet is the largest Baka village recognition by the Cameroon state as Indigenous in the area, with about 800 inhabitants (half of People, the Baka still suffer from discrimination, them children) and was built around a Catho- the lack of land tenure, and having no voice in lic mission (Ramirez-Rozzi 2018). It has a pri- the political decision-making processes (Pyhälä mary school only for Baka children, a health 2012). While the Baka still largely rely on for- post with a few nurses and basic medicines, aging and game and wild plants play a crucial and about seven small shops owned by forest role in their diet and livelihood (Gallois et al. products traders. The closest Nzime village is 2020), their access to the forest depends on the about 8 km away. Kungu is smaller, with about conservation and economic interests approved 300 Baka inhabitants (around 100 children) and at the state level. Baka health is challenged by located within the Nzime village Nkeadinako changes in their livelihood, as sedentarization (Gallois et al. 2020). Baka and Nzime children introduced new diseases (Dounias and Froment attend school together in Nkeadinako, and the 2006), and decreased their access to natural closest health center and shops are about 7 km resources, while access to modern health care away in Messok, the local administrative town and education is still limited due to economic of the district. constraints, large distances to the health posts, and discrimination (Carson 2019). The presence of external actors, prostitution, alcohol abuse, and drug consumption have negatively affected Ethics their fertility, health, and well-being (Carson et al. 2019; Gallois et al. 2021; Ramirez-Rozzi Before the onset of our research, we 2018). Therefore, it is important to know how received the approval of the ethics committee the Baka maintain their health and comprehend of the Autonomous University of Barcelona the social, economic, and ecological changes (CEEAH5926) and obtained a research per- that influence their health. mit from the Cameroon Ministry of Scientific Most Baka children are fully engaged in Research and Innovation (00098/MINRESI/B00/ adults’ daily life, participating in subsistence C00/C10/C13). We followed the Code of Eth- activities and domestic care. School attendance ics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [VOL Economic Botany Fig. 1. Map of the study sites Le Bosquet and Kungu in southeast Cameroon (ISE 2006) and the Charter of Ethical Research Data Collection Involving Children (Graham et al. 2013). After arrival in each settlement, we first explained We used a mixed methods approach, combin- the aim of our study in a village meeting and ing structured interviews with walk-in-the-woods obtained free, prior, and informed consent from trips to gather children’s knowledge both at the all participating children and their parents. Once group and individual levels. We considered chil- parental consent was received, we specifically dren from newborns up to 16 years old, following explained the research aim and methods to the the Baka classification (Gallois et al. 2017). We children, asked for their consent, and made sure recruited participants from both genders and three that their willingness to participate was inde- age groups: 5–8 (middle childhood), 9–12 (pre- pendent of their parental influence. During the adolescence), and 13–16 years (adolescence). We research, we ensured the children’s physical and included children from each of the extended fami- psychological safety and integrity (see Supple- lies of the settlements, so potential interfamilial mentary Material A). Since Baka adults profit knowledge variation was covered by our sample. from the sale of herbal medicine and provide In June–July 2022, we conducted freelist- medical services to non-Baka Cameroonians, ing interviews with children and asked them to they specifically asked us not to publish the reci- report all the medicinal plants they knew. We pes together with the scientific and vernacular recorded local plant names in Baka, Nzime, names of the medicinal plants. We followed their and French, but did not ask the children to pro- request and did not provide a link between plant vide information on the diseases treated with names and uses in our results. We sent a com- herbal medicine or detailed recipes. In Octo- plete database linking plant names, preparation ber–November 2022, we conducted walk-in- methods, and uses to the Baka communities we the-woods trips (Phillips and Gentry 1993) with worked with, as previously agreed. 2 to 5 children per trip and asked them to show 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE us the medicinal plants they knew (Van Bemmel three methods. With the walk-in-the-woods 2023). All trips departed from children’s homes data, we calculated the number of different and were directed by the children, so each trip health issues and unique recipes, defined here was different (Van Bemmel 2023). As soon as a as a unique combination of a local name, plant child showed us a plant, we asked for the entire part, preparation, and application (Martin recipe: the local plant name (in Baka, Nzime 2004). Regarding recipes’ diversity, we calcu- and/or French), plant part used, preparation lated the percentages of plant parts used and method, and health issue for which the plant was preparation methods. Regarding the complete- used. Once the child finished his/her explana- ness of the recipes, we explored the occurrence tion, we asked whether anyone else in the group of missing information: a lack of accurate knew another use or recipe for this species. We knowledge on plant name, plant part, prepara- collected two vouchers of each specimen, took tion and/or application. photographs, and recorded GPS coordinates, life Second, we used the answers of the freel- form, vegetation type, and any additional infor- istings and the individual knowledge surveys to mation. The forest trips lasted between 2.5 and explore knowledge variation within childhood. 4 h. Duplicates were deposited at the National We analyzed whether the number of plants col- Herbarium of Cameroon in Yaoundé (YA) and lected by each method related to gender and Naturalis Biodiversity Center in Leiden, the age categories, using Wilcoxon ranking and Netherlands (L). Initial plant identification took Kruskal–Wallis tests, respectively, with Stata14 place at YA and was continued at L, using botan- for Windows. ical literature and herbarium specimens. Scien- Third, to assess the complementarity of the tific names were updated following the Plants of three methods, we focused on the plant species the World Online database (POWO 2019). mentioned, as recipes were not reported during Between 4 and 24 h after the forest trips, we the freelisting and knowledge surveys. We pro- conducted individual knowledge surveys with duced accumulation curves for the number of the participants, in which we asked them to new plant species provided per day or partici- report the natural remedies they knew for 18 pants interviewed to evaluate whether the dif- previously selected, frequently occurring health ferent methods reached saturation regarding data issues. We based these 18 health issues on earlier retrieval, using Flame software (Pennec et al. collected datasets on the emic Baka perspective 2012). We then compared the unique and over- of health, including physical and socio-cultural lapping medicinal plant species mentioned dur- health issues (Supplementary Material B). ing each method and the frequency with which We conducted all in situ and ex situ interviews children mentioned them. in Baka language, with the help of a research assistant-interpreter, co-author of this study. For the spelling of Baka names, we used Bris- son (2010). Local names recorded during the Results interviews for which no vouchers could be col- lected were checked with Baka adults and (eth- Children’s Medicinal Plant Knowledge nobotanical) literature on the Baka (Betti et al. 2004; Betti and Lejoly 2009; 2013a; 2013b; In this study, 106 children (46 boys and 60 Brisson 2011; Hattori 2020). Local names of girls) participated: 53 participated in the freel- well-known crops were identified directly in the isting interviews (23 boys and 30 girls; 28 in Le field (Supplementary Material C). Bosquet and 25 in Kungu) and 53 different chil- dren participated in the walk-in-the-woods trips Data Analysis and knowledge surveys (23 boys and 30 girls; 32 in Le Bosquet and 21 in Kungu). We conducted a three-step approach to A total of 128 different medicinal plant spe- assess children’s knowledge of medicinal cies were recorded during the three methods plants. First, we explored the knowledge of together, 120 with a Baka name, including 13 children as a group by assessing the diversity domesticated food crops and 115 wild species, of medicinal plant species gathered with the of which two Dioscorea species were taken [VOL Economic Botany from the wild and planted in provision fields By far the most frequently mentioned species (Supplementary Material B). Twelve species reported during the interviews and forest walks could only be identified to genus level. For was Alstonia boonei De Wild (Apocynaceae), a the eight Baka names we could not collect a common tree in secondary forest and used for voucher, we identified six using additional many different health issues. Table 1 presents information from Baka adults and the literature the most frequently reported medicinal plants (Brisson 2011), but two remained unidentified. elicited with the three research methods. Half The Fabaceae were the most species-rich family were forest trees, indicating children’s knowl- (11 species), followed by Annonaceae (7 spp.), edge of (primary) forest species (Supplementary Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, Irvingiaceae, Rubi- Material C). The three methods differed regard- aceae, and Asteraceae (each 5 spp.). Most of ing the frequently mentioned species. For exam- the identified species were trees (65 spp.), fol- ple, the herb Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Ander- lowed by herbs (32 spp.), climbers (18 spp.), son, often mentioned in the knowledge survey, and shrubs (11 spp.). did not appear during the other two methods. Table 1. The 10 most frequently reported medicinal plants of each research method (walk-in-the-woods, freel- isting, and knowledge surveys), overall and by method (n = 106 children) Species Baka name Overall Walk-in-the-woods Freelist- Knowl- (sum) (number of unique ing edge recipes) (times surveys men- (times tioned) men- tioned) Alstonia boonei De Wild gùgà 78 7 30 41 Clerodendrum cf. umbellatum Poir nyisoso 41 1 12 28 Annickia affinis (Exell) Versteegh & Sosef epue 37 6 13 18 Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms boluma 29 3 12 14 Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & botunga 29 9 7 13 Diels) Verdc Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth mbalaka 28 3 17 8 Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex pèke 27 4 11 12 O’Rorke) Baill Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv ngàta 25 11 3 11 Tabernaemontana crassa Benth pando 22 4 5 13 Microdesmis puberula Hook.f. ex Planch pipi 20 9 2 9 Sida acuta Burm.f tandanda 19 2 4 13 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. bokasa 19 3 2 14 Rob Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels ngbe 18 5 5 8 Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Baill.) Pax & njene 17 8 1 8 K. Hoffm Aframomum sp. njiyi 16 2 7 7 Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson kpa na nje 16 0 0 16 Erythrophleum sp. ngbanda 12 0 8 4 Alchornea floribunda Müll. Arg yàndo 12 7 1 4 Rourea obliquifoliolata Gilg tukusà 11 3 1 7 Manniophyton fulvum Müll. Arg kusa 11 7 1 3 Millettia soyauxii Taub monyoko 6 5 0 1 Elephantopus mollis Kunth yokokome 2 2 0 0 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE Individually, children reported, on average, shaking (Table 2). Interestingly, children also five species during freelisting (SD = 2.6) and knew how to cure adult-specific diseases and eight during the knowledge surveys (SD = 5.2). problems related to social cohesion: about 25% These averages did not differ significantly listed plants used to protect people from poten- between age and gender, except that the age tial conflicts in the community. Some children group 9–12 years reported more species in the reported medicinal plants to protect a newborn knowledge surveys (average = 9.25 species) baby in case of adultery by its parents, which can than other age categories (3.9 for the young- cause several illnesses or growth problems from est category and 8.5 for the oldest, Z = 11.28, the Baka perspective. p > 0.01) (Fig. 2). The answers provided during the knowledge survey slightly varied according to gender and Children’s Knowledge on Treating age. Girls knew significantly more often herbal Diseases remedies than boys for women-specific issues such as improving breastmilk quality or treat- Our Baka informants knew medicinal plants ing menstruation pain. Children under 9 knew to treat all 18 health issues queried during the medicinal plants for 15 of the 18 health issues; knowledge surveys and reported 4 to 34 differ- they did not report herbal medicine for child ent species per health issue. Children responded protection, menstruation pain, or impotency. more frequently and with the highest number Our data showed no clear knowledge increase of species to common ailments such as cough, with age, except for plants related to breastmilk stomachache, and “jiyo,” a combination of quality, intestinal worms, and stomachache. symptoms including fever, body pain, and However, children between 9 and 12 years old Fig. 2. Individual average number of medicinal plant species reported by age, gender, and ex situ methods (n = 106 children) [VOL Economic Botany Table 2. Answers to the 18 health issues of the knowledge surveys. Per health issue: Number of informants listing at least one medicinal plant species to treat it, total number of reported species, and average number reported per informant (n = 53 children) Disease category Health issue Number of Total number of Average number of spe- informants species reported cies reported per informant (n = 53) [%] [range] High frequency “Jiyo” 44 [83] 34 1.55 [0–7] Cough 41 [77] 31 1.06 [0–3] Body pain 27 [51] 18 0.53 [0–2] Medium frequency Stomachache 39 [74] 23 0.98 [0–4] Lack of blood 29 [55] 8 0.57 [0–2] Back pain* 22 [42] 14 0.42 [0–1] Low frequency Intestinal worms 36 [68] 12 0.72 [0–2] Hepatitis 27 [51] 10 0.51 [0–1] Avoiding conflict* 14 [26] 7 0.28 [0–2] Children specific Children’s diarrhea 22 [42] 20 0.51 [0–3] Scabies* 27 [51] 10 0.53 [0–2] Child protection* 5 [9] 4 0.09 [0–1] Men specific Groin hernia 11 [21] 8 0.23 [0–2] Venereal diseases 14 [26] 8 0.30 [0–2] Impotency* 9 [17] 8 0.17 [0–1] Women specific Labor complications 16 [30] 11 0.34 [0–2] Menstruation pain* 9 [17] 12 0.25 [0–3] Breastmilk quality 23 [43] 12 0.51 [0–2] * Health issues not mentioned during the walk-in-the-woods trips knew significantly more often medicinal plants Children shared a diversity of preparation for child protection and hepatitis than other age methods, using most often leaves (44% of the groups (Supplementary Material D). recipes) and bark (41%). In most recipes (139 During the walk-in-the-woods trips, children out of 172), plants were used internally, mainly did not show us any plant for six of the 18 health mixed with warm or cold water, and squeezed, issues of the knowledge survey (Table 2). How- boiled, eaten raw, or burned (Fig. 3). ever, these trips yielded remedies for 42 health Plant extracts were either drunk or inserted via issues not present in the knowledge survey, a funnel made from a rolled leaf to the ear, nose, reaching a total of 53 different health issues and or eyes (Fig. 4) or inserted as an enema using 172 unique recipes (Supplementary Material E). a rubber syringe. Some plant parts were eaten The nine most frequent health issues mentioned raw or prepared as a meal. When taken exter- spontaneously by children were also covered by nally, the plants were applied on the skin, either the previously designed knowledge survey. While directly or chewed, crushed, boiled, or as ashes, the health issues reported mostly represented or in an herbal bath. Plant-based charms, worn general symptoms of frequent diseases, children as amulets (Fig. 4), kept near the human body, also listed recipes for more specific ailments, or rubbed between the hands were mostly used such as pain in the heart and “pimi,” described for attracting good luck and protection against as pain felt in the spleen. Also, children shared sorcery, but also against cough, “jiyo,” or pain 15 recipes for cultural health issues, including in the spleen. remedies against sorcery and bad spirits or for Regarding the accuracy of children’s knowl- attracting luck (Supplementary Material E). edge, 158 of the 172 unique recipes were 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE Fig. 3. Proportion of medicinal plants’ preparation methods reported in children’ recipes (172 unique reci- pes reported during the walk-in-the-woods trips, n = 53 children) Fig. 4. a Baka adult dripping an herbal extract in the eye through a funnel made of a Marantaceae leaf; b Baka adolescent preparing a plant-based string to foster child’s growth. Photographs: S. Gallois complete (local name, plant part, preparation, Complementarity of Field Methods application). Our informants could not pro- vide a Baka name for 11 of the 61 plant spe- Before analyzing any overlap in data cies collected during the walk-in-the-woods, retrieved by the different methods, it is impor- but they always knew the plant part used, its tant to verify whether each sufficiently cap- preparations, and applications (Supplementary tured the available information. The accumu- Material C). So, the (few) gaps in children’s lation curves of the freelisting and knowledge knowledge occurred in the correct naming of surveys flattened completely: no more new plants, rather than in their uses. plant species were reported after interview- ing 29 children (Fig. 5). The accumulation Economic Botany Fig. 5. Accumulation curves for the number of plant species mentioned during the three methods and the number of unique recipes during the walk-in-the- woods method (n = 106 children) [VOL 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE curve for the walk-in-the-woods method recipes. The children’s expertise sheds light on almost reached the asymptote about plant spe- the ethnobotanical knowledge distribution in cies; however, the number of recipes was still Baka communities and their general health sta- increasing. We would have gathered more data tus. To our knowledge, this is the highest diver- on herbal preparations and applications if we sity of medicinal plants reported by children had continued our forest walks. in the world: more than three times as much as From the 128 medicinal plant species reported by Saramaccan children in Suriname reported, most (90 species) were reported (36 species, Van’t Klooster et al. 2019), and during the knowledge surveys (Fig. 6, Supple- many times higher than reported in rural Niger mentary Material C). Only 30 species (about (15 species, Guimbo et al. 2011), for Yucatan 25%) were reported in all three methods; 39 Maya (15 species, Jiménez-Balam et al. 2019), species were only shared by two methods and Vale do Catimbau, Brazil (22 species, Sousa 59 species were unique to one of the meth- et al. 2022), or Tremezzina in Italy (36 species, ods. Therefore, we would have missed much Bruschi et al. 2019). This high number could of the Baka children’s knowledge of medicinal be related to the biodiverse forest of the Congo plants if we had limited ourselves to only one Basin and to the Baka’s background as hunter- method. During forest trips, our informants gatherers. Baka children knew many medicinal saw plants that would not have come to their trees, which is coherent with the Baka’s cultural mind during interviews, including species for perception of the power of forest trees (Betti which they did not know a local name. The ex 2004), but contrasts with the predominance of situ interviews, however, shared more species weeds in other settings (Stepp 2004). About with each other, as they provided data on the 81 of the 172 unique recipes provided by Baka most frequently used medicinal plants, which children were not known by our Baka co-author, did not surface during the walk-in-the-woods possibly because medicinal knowledge is diverse trips. and varies according to extended families. Still, whether Baka children’s medicinal plants knowl- edge differs from that of adults, as is the case Discussion with animals and wild edible plants (Gallois et al. 2017), should be further explored, prefer- Extensive Knowledge Held by Baka ably also by using a mixed-methods approach. Children In contrast with our expectations, we saw a permeable division of knowledge and practices Baka children know a considerable amount beyond age, gender, and health issues. Age and of medicinal plant species, belonging to dif- gender had a limited effect on the medicinal ferent life forms and forest types, and a diver- knowledge of children. Even though Baka boys sity of health issues, with a high precision of did not know much herbal medicine to ease Fig. 6. Overlap in medici- nal plant species reported (n = 128) between the three methods (n = 106 children) [VOL Economic Botany menstruation pains or childbirth problems, they Our research also brings relevant insights on the knew how to improve the quality of breastmilk. Baka’s state of their health and the potential factors Baka children hold a common pool of recipes that affect their healthcare system. The diversity and and medicinal plants, and some have specified high frequency of plants used to treat “jiyo” and knowledge, which may echo their parents’ world. mentioning spleen problems stands out. “Jiyo” is Baka children not only knew how to treat com- a combination of symptoms that is often translated mon childhood illnesses but also diseases that as malaria (Betti et al. 2013a, Carson et al. 2019), mostly occur during adulthood, such as sexually while malaria infection constitutes a detrimental transmitted diseases, groin hernia and compli- factor in the still immature spleen function of young cations during childbirth. Their knowledge is children, putting children with malaria at a high risk thus not limited to their own health experience, of developing life-threatening bacterial infections as we hypothesized earlier based on a study (Gómez-Pérez et al. 2014). Malaria prevalence in among Mexican children (Jiménez-Balam et al. Cameroon is high (Antonio-Nkondjio et al. 2019), 2019). This probably relates to the importance so medical and anthropological research should of sharing in the egalitarian Baka community, in evaluate the symptoms and potential causes of which sexuality and supernatural aspects are not “jiyo” and spleen problems, considering that the kept secret or discussed only during adulthood. Congo Basin is a hotspot of emerging infectious These findings echo insights from other forager diseases (Allen et al. 2017). Children’s detailed groups of the Congo Basin, in which sexual life knowledge on adult-specific and previously consid- is not placed apart from childhood (Hewlett and ered less common diseases also caught our atten- Hewlett 2010). Thus, other social and individual tion. The fact that children often reported sexually factors may be involved in the distribution of transmitted infections and groin hernia shows the medicinal knowledge, such as kinship, friend- importance of those diseases in the Baka commu- ship, and familiar medical history, as shown in nities. Baka health and well-being are negatively other settings (Quinlan et al. 2016). affected by loggers and natural resource traders, The richness of Baka children’s medicinal among other external actors. Children especially knowledge suggests they still learn about the suffer from increasing alcohol and drug consump- forest and their culture. Such skills appear to tion and sexual abuse from non-Baka people such be acquired early during childhood, in line as logging truck drivers and their Bantu neighbors with previous studies showing that children (Gallois et al. 2021; Ramirez-Rozzi 2018). Baka are proficient in such knowledge realms before adults working as wage laborers for timber compa- adolescence (Soldati et al. 2015). This can be nies often carry tropical hardwood from the forest. explained by Baka’s limited access to education Lifting heavy loads may result in groin hernia (Fitz- and modern health and children’s involvement gibbons and Forse 2015), and Baka laborers are in subsistence and forest-orientated activities. often given addictive painkillers such as Tramadol Baka children take care of their siblings and are by illegal loggers (Gallois et al. 2021). The unsus- asked to collect medicinal plants by adults and tainable exploitation of timber and wildlife and thus passively and actively participate in heal- ongoing deforestation may further weaken Baka ing sick persons. This participation contributes health, while adequate medical facilities remain to an early acquisition of medicinal knowledge scarce and undeveloped in this region (Carson (Jiménez-Balam et al, 2019; Quinlan et al. et al. 2019). Therefore, further anthropological and ethnobotanical research should take an emic per- 2016; Van’t Klooster et al, 2019). More study spective, taking into consideration Baka’s access to is needed on this acquisition process, explor- natural resources and Western medical facilities, to ing the knowledge transmission pathways and better understand the adaptive capacity of the Baka whether experimentation and “playing” healing healthcare system to cope with such pressures. by imitating adults’ activities occur, as observed for hunting or collecting edible plants (Gal- lois et al. 2018). Also, further research should Methodological Approaches for Putting explore how cultural erosion is influenced by Children at the Center Stage social and individual factors, such as school attendance and market integration, which was Our data clearly show that our ex situ inter- beyond the scope of this study. views and in situ forest walks are largely 2023] GALLOIS ET AL.: BAKA CHILDREN’S MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE complementary: they resulted mostly in different of children of varying ages seemed a relevant medicinal plants and associated knowledge, each strategy for including young and shy children bringing unique information. The species shared and stimulating them to participate. If the by the three methods probably represent the pool researcher ensures that older children stimulate of medicinal plants commonly used by children, the younger ones to share and not overrule them, echoing the concept of the structural core (Sousa this is a suitable method to gather children’s et al. 2022) of children’s health system. There- knowledge as a whole. It is somewhat similar fore, our results support previous claims of the to focus group discussions, but forest walks importance of a mixed-methods approach to provide the researcher and the participants with cover the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge (unexpected) visual props (in our case medici- (Flachs 2018; Stepp 2010). The strength of this nal plants) that stimulate discussion, knowledge approach also relies on botanical voucher col- exchange, and revitalization. lection (Gallois et al. 2020; Nolan and Turner Not only the setting and the length of the 2011). Relying on local names only does not methods are essential when working with chil- accurately estimate the diversity of natural dren but also the researchers’ own approach resources used, and thus negatively affects local (Adler et al. 2019). Being an adult foreigner people’s position in forest conservation and ter- puts the researcher into a particular category of ritorial land rights (Gallois et al. 2021). Contrary naïve newcomer close to children. Ethnobota- to our expectations, the ex situ methods yielded nists may gain from this particular position to larger numbers of medicinal plant species than enter children’s world easily, especially if they the in situ method. By comparing three methods maintain a respectful attitude and follow local in the same study group, we show differences rules. Creating a space of trust is fostered mainly in quantitative and qualitative data retrieved by by the researchers’ behavior, such as flexibil- each method and that more commonly used spe- ity, warmth, a friendly attitude, and the use of cies were shared between the ex situ methods. humor (Adler et al. 2019). The previous long- The selection of the health issues for the knowl- term interaction of the first author with the Baka edge survey, aimed at embracing Baka’s health communities, the children’s appreciation of the conception and practices, influenced the richness second (Baka) author as a former teacher, and of our data. Previous ethnographic study is key, the time spent by the last author playing with and valid for any ethnoecological realm (Flachs kids every afternoon largely contributed to gain- 2018; Stepp 2010). ing their trust. Potential interference by other Our mixed methods approach is adapted to adults, such as teachers, parents, interpreters, working with children, for several reasons. and research assistants, needs special attention Children’s age is an important decision factor (van’t Klooster et al. 2019). Researchers should in choosing research methods (Sullivan et al. think beforehand about where the interviews will 2018). In our case, we reached participants as take place, ensuring that adults do not interfere young as 6 years old. When interviewed, chil- or limit what children would like to share. If dren could answer without elaborating complex interpreters or research assistants are needed verbal knowledge. We experienced that using during data collection, researchers should ensure active in situ methods such as forest walks is beforehand that their relationship with children a powerful way to enter children’s world, as it is respectful and that children are not ashamed takes place in their own familiar environment. of talking in their presence. Children tend to Asking children to guide researchers puts them share information more easily without adults, on center stage and permits them to introduce but understanding their language and expres- outsiders to their world. It also breaks away from sions can be challenging. Taking along an adult artificial research settings like schools, where from the local community is, therefore, a trade- biases often occur (Gallois and Reyes-García off between obtaining better-verified information 2018). Going to the forest made Baka children and losing some typical children’s knowledge feel comfortable and even enjoy the trips to play that the adult may dismiss as “nonsense.” around. We noticed an adequate amount of time Conducting ethnobotanical research with chil- was about 3 h, after which the children’s atten- dren is not only relevant for scientists and conser- tion decreased. The forest trips with groups vationists but also has impacts at the community [VOL Economic Botany level. Working with groups of different children Author Contribution S. v. B, T. v. A., and S. G. fosters knowledge sharing among them, which fits participated in the design of the study, plant identifi- their cultural way of knowledge acquisition and cation, data analysis, and writing the manuscript. S. v. transmission (Gallois et al. 2017). Documenting B, A. A., and S. G. collected the data. A. A. verified the data collected and commented on the analysis. All plant use practices also fosters the revitalization of authors have read the submitted manuscript. knowledge and interest in the community’s culture. After showing interest in recording Baka children’s knowledge, adults first told us it would be difficult Funding Open Access Funding provided by Univer- sitat Autonoma de Barcelona. This study was funded because they assumed that children knew little. by the Beatriu de Pinós Programme and the Minis- When looking for participants, adults seldom say try of Research and Universities of the Government that their children knew about plants, and when it of Catalonia (BP2020-00216), the Alberta Men- was the case, they mostly referred to adolescents. nega Stichting and Naturalis Biodiversity Center. It However, after seeing the amount of plant vouch- received support of the Laboratory for the Analysis ers we brought back for identification, Baka adults of Social-Ecological Systems in a Globalized world were surprised and curious to know what infor- (LASEG), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and mation was shared by their children. This type of Generalitat de Catalunya (2021-SGR-00182). research has the potential to intrinsically increase the recognition of children’s knowledge within a Data Availability The data supporting the findings of community. this study are available within the article and its sup- plementary materials. The whole disaggregated raw dataset will be available at the CORA. Research Data Repository (CORA.RDR; https://​datav​erse.​csuc.​cat/) Conclusion labeled with the first author’s name. Our research provides evidence of the exten- Open Access This article is licensed under a Crea- sive expertise of Baka children regarding health tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, knowledge and practices. The diversity of which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution medicinal plants reported indicates that despite and reproduction in any medium or format, as long the grave social and ecological pressures suf- as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com- fered by the Baka in southeast Cameroon, their mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The children are active holders of ethnobotanical images or other third party material in this article are and cultural knowledge, and learn from their included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, peers, parents, and the time spent in the forest. unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate- Using a mixed methods approach, well adapted rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative to children, is a powerful tool to capture this Commons licence and your intended use is not permit- knowledge, foster the maintenance of biocultural ted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted diversity, and create a framework for a more sus- use, you will need to obtain permission directly from tainable future. Huge efforts are still needed to the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, elucidate how marginalized small-scale socie- visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. ties use their natural environment in the face of global change and transmit this knowledge to younger generations. Children should therefore be placed at the center stage of research on the Literature Cited sustainable use of natural resources. Acknowledgements Adler, K., S. Salanterä, and M. Zumstein-Shaha. 2019. Focus group interviews in child, youth, We deeply thank all Baka children and adults for their trust, generosity, and hospitality. We also thank and parent research: An integrative literature the Institut pour la Recherche et le Développement and review. International Journal of Qualitative Eric Ngansop. This research contributes to ICTA-UAB Methods 18: 1609406919887274. https://d​ oi.​ “María de Maeztu” Programme for Units of Excellence org/​10.​1177/​16094​06919​887274 of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation Allen, T., K. A. 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