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Item: Title: 3.2.3 Intersecting perspectives and assessing knowledge claims Item: Title: 4 Not unification but a richer perspectival structure Children: Item: Title: 4.1 On the pointlessness of ecumenism Item: Title: 4.2 Enriching the perspectival landscape Item: Title: 5 Concluding remarks Item: Title: References Info: Creator: Adobe InDesign 18.3 (Windows) Producer: Adobe PDF Library 17.0; modified using iText® 5.5.13.4 ©2000-2024 iText Group NV (SPRINGER SBM; licensed version) CreationDate: Sat Sep 19 03:26:32 CEST 2026 ModDate: Sat Sep 19 07:33:22 CEST 2026 ID: 0x8dfd0e706d93324c8717ab34fa9c5f9d, 0xd6e3ee006890ba70bfb20ec8e8bc2c9e Filters: FilterPipeline: FlateDecode Images: Image: NisoImageMetadata: FormatName: image/png ImageWidth: 1100 ImageHeight: 90 BitsPerSample: 1 BitsPerSampleUnit: integer Filter: FlateDecode Intent: RelativeColorimetric ImageMask: true Decode: 0, 1 Name: X Fonts: Type0: Font: BaseFont: CJTDUK+TimesNewRomanPSMT Encoding: Identity-H ToUnicode: true Font: 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Notable recent exceptions to this general trend are Égré ( 2015 ), Terzian ( 2021 ) and Terzian & Corbalán ( 2021 ), for example. 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P. Lehmann as it appeared in Lehmann ( 1967 , Ch. XIV). 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My point is that it is precisely because of this methodological contrast that Biolinguistics qualifies as an interfield theory different from, but necessarily interfacing with, Linguistics. Thus, I am ready to accept that there is an area of research, let’s call it Linguistics, whose main focus is the identification of ‘linguistically real patterns’ and whose connections with biology (cognition, psychology, etc.) are either very weak or entirely absent; see Nefdt ( 2023b , Ch. 5) for a detailed articulation of a proposal along similar lines and Haspelmath ( 2020 , 2021 ) for a like-minded view, expressed in terms of the distinction between g-lin ­ guistics (general linguistics, aka biolinguistics) and p-linguistics (particular linguistics, i.e., comparative- descriptive linguistics). As it will become clear as I proceed, however, this is the only point about which I disagree with Lorenzo’s theses. 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Later, Cedric Boeckx (Boeckx, 2009 , 2015 ) followed suit with a slightly more streamlined pro ­ posal by adding some nice new names for those questions that Chomsky had not already labeled before. 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But, leaving aside Eric Lenneberg’s (still illuminating) speculations in chapter 6 of his Biological Foundations of Language (Lenneberg, 1967 ), the pioneer in language evolution research was perhaps Philip Lieberman with The Biology and Evolution of Language (Lieberman, 1984 )and subsequent work. 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Thus, Levins ( 1996 , 107–108; my emphasis) in his assessment of the research process writes: In approaching a new problem, my Marxism encourages me to ask two basic questions: why are things the way they are instead of a little bit different, and why are things the way they are instead of very different ? … This first question is that of the self-regulation of systems, of homeostasis … The second question is the question of evolution, history, and development . This paper by Levins was reprinted as chapter 16 of Lewontin & Levins ( 2007 ), a book which in Part II includes other works where these ideas are discussed in connection with the problem of investigating complexity. That much would strengthen the idea expressed in the text that Biolinguistics as an interfield theory only came out once the members of the scientific community started to take seriously these evolu ­ tionary issues. It also hints at the idea that the MP’s biolinguistics, claims to the contrary notwithstanding (e.g., Jenkins, 2000 ), is a relatively newcomer to the Biolinguistic enterprise. Indeed, in a paper coauthored with Howard Lasnik, originally written in 1993 and reprinted as Chapter 1 of Chomsky ( 1995 ) we read, in the context of a brief discussion of the research questions (Q1–Q4) plus Darwin’s problem, that “[p] roblems (2d–e) [i.e., (Q4) above plus Darwin’s problem; the author] appear to be beyond serious inquiry for the time being, along with many similar questions about cognition generally … We will put these mat ­ ters aside.” (Chomsky, 1995 , 18). 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Giere never really gave a definition of perspective and he used the analogy with color vision to characterize perspectivism: “a general characteristic of chromatic visual perspectives [is] that different perspectives are always compatible . There seems no way to generate a genuine incon ­ sistency between different chromatic systems. They are just different” (Giere, 2006 , 33; his emphasis); and, later, he adds that “scientific knowledge is perspectival in ways strongly analogous to the way our knowledge of colors is perspectival” (ibid., 36). Giere also saw perspectives as very similar to what Kuhn ( 2012 , 181–186) called ‘disciplinary matrices’ (Giere, 2006 , 82). The study of the Kuhnian and Feyera ­ bendian connections of perspectival realism is a fascinating enterprise that clearly transcends the goals of this paper; but see Giere ( 2013 , 2016 ). 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Chomsky ( 2009 )is a comprehensive exercise in tracing the historical antecedents of generative grammar, and, in fact, any of Chomsky’s shorter pieces almost always devotes the very first pages to put the research program in context. As for the ES, it is partly a fairly recent spin-off of the generative program that also tries to incorporate a number of ideas that were developed in pre-generative times; as noted in SubSec ­ tion 3.2.1 , its roots can easily be traced back to the work of Jim Hurford in the late 1980s. 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I thank an anonymous reviewer for alerting me about this  even when it comes to the MP, things are not as monolithic as the exposition that follows might suggest and, also in this case, one may need to recognize the existence of concurring (sub)perspectives. This is a characteristic feature of perspectivism and a desirable one at that, since, as noted, it is only through the simultaneous existence of a plurality of communities entering dialog and comparing results that increasingly reliable knowledge may be generated; see, for examples of this, Massimi ( 2022b , Chs. 4.a 4.c). Rect: 203, 526, 210, 513 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 227 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 12 12 Terminology has varied over the years and other terms have been used to refer to the same object(s) both by Chomsky and his critics such as Universal Grammar (UG) and Language Acquisition Device (LAD). In general, however, FL is used to name to the initial state of the system prior to the start of the acquisition process, while nowadays UG is usually kept to refer to the theory of FL; I-language refers to the result of the acquisition process. In this paper, I shall stick to this terminology whenever it is necessary to distin ­ guish between the two. Rect: 275, 406, 282, 393 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 227 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 13 13 Not to be confused with ‘evolvability’ as a technical term used in theoretical biology; see Watson ( 2021 ). 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This claim is widely accepted but not uncontroversial, see the papers in van der Hulst ( 2010 ), especially those in Part II. Rect: 148, 550, 155, 537 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 254 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 204, 478, 224, 465 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 722 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1975 Rect: 285, 442, 305, 429 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2008 Rect: 310, 442, 330, 429 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 15 15 See, for example, Chomsky ( 2012 , 71–72). Fodor and Chomsky would nonetheless (strongly) disagree on how the atoms of thought acquire the semantic properties they have, but this is clearly the topic for an entirely different paper. It is important to take into account however that this is precisely the reason why Chomsky believes that the human conceptual system is special, an idea that goes back, at least, to Carte ­ sian Linguistics (Chomsky, 2009 ; originally published in 1966). 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It’s the study of some amalgam of language and sensory-motor systems. But if we want to really think through the internal language, the entity that’s computing away and giving you semantic interpretations, that doesn’t have any of these properties. It doesn’t have operations of reconstruction, doesn’t have linear order; just operates along producing thoughts in your mind which you can then try to externalize somehow. (Chomsky, 2020 , 27). 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A classic example of this, discussed in detail in the references in the text, concerns the difference between sentences like ‘instinctively birds that fly swim’ vs. ‘birds that fly instinctively swim’, where the second one is ambigu ­ ous between a reading where the adverb ‘instinctively’ can modify either the verb ‘fly’ or the verb ‘swim’, while the first is not and the adverb can only modify the (linearly farther but structurally closer), verb ‘swim’; for some experimental evidence in young infants for this and other cases see Shi et al. ( 2020 ) and Zhu & Gavarró ( 2025 ). 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Rect: 208, 406, 215, 393 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 295 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2024a Rect: 361, 370, 385, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2016 Rect: 146, 286, 166, 273 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2017 Rect: 172, 286, 192, 273 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2024b Rect: 191, 262, 216, 249 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 20 20 Although Chomsky is not always generous in his writings when it comes to references and he just drops a few names as if what he means were obvious; so for Galileo, see Allott et al. ( 2021 ), for Leibniz’s Opti ­ mality Principle, see McDonough ( 2022 ), for Einstein, see Einstein ( 1995 , 341–356), and for Weinberg, see Weinberg ( 1976 ). 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Wray ( 1998 ) assumes that proto-language was holistic in this sense and this assumption has been directly incor ­ porated into ILM. Note that, by definition, holistic systems cannot be open systems of communication since all signal-meaning pairs must be learned by rote. This is another relevant point of disagreement with the MP, since the ES clearly assumes that there exists continuity between the human system of signals and some ancestral one, while the MP does not foresee any continuity between human externalization and non-human communication systems. 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Also, they usually express a stronger commitment with a particular theory of grammatical structure than the ES, namely Construction Grammar (Goldberg, 2013 , for an oveview). 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AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2017 Rect: 319, 369, 335, 358 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Thumb: true Page: Sequence: 18 Annotations: Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2023a Rect: 80, 562, 104, 549 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 854 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2022b Rect: 196, 478, 221, 465 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 823 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2016 Rect: 253, 382, 273, 369 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2017 Rect: 54, 370, 74, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2025 Rect: 297, 370, 317, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 23 23 I thank an anonymous reviewer for calling my attention to this reference. Rect: 323, 370, 330, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 411 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2003 Rect: 229, 298, 249, 285 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 854 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 4 Rect: 93, 286, 98, 273 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 489 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 4 Rect: 142, 214, 147, 201 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 489 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2017 Rect: 164, 202, 184, 189 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 24 24 The idea of ‘substrate neutrality’ has to do with the fact that Darwininan evolutionary models may be applied to different populational phenomena even though the populations of interest are not biological populations (du Crest et al., 2023 ; Godfrey-Smith, 2009 ). 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Destination: 823 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 25 25 The exploratory nature of the MP has always been explicitly assumed by Chomsky since the very begin ­ ning, hence the use of the word ‘program’. The literature on modeling practices in linguistics is scarce, but from the few existing references I believe one may come to agree that the nature of the models is mostly exploratory. For example, Terzian ( 2021 ), in her examination of the Principles & Parameters framework that has the MP as its offshoot, concludes that P&P is a toy model that “qualifies as … a ‘retrospective model’, and that in this capacity it deserves recognition as a fruitful vehicle of understanding” (Terzian, 2021 , 1–2). Similar considerations apply to the computational models of Kirby and collaborators which, their mathematical sophistication notwithstanding, are extremely idealized (for obvious reasons) and “in a quite fundamental way … explanatory incomplete” (Woensdregt et al., 2021 , 213). Rect: 182, 466, 189, 453 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 489 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1966 Rect: 118, 430, 138, 417 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 804 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1981 Rect: 286, 430, 306, 417 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2008 Rect: 248, 310, 268, 297 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2016 Rect: 205, 274, 225, 261 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2007b Rect: 328, 250, 353, 237 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 804 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 25 Rect: 51, 187, 56, 177 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 489 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 165, 159, 181, 148 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 51, 130, 67, 120 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 279, 111, 295, 101 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 939 Thumb: true Page: Sequence: 23 Annotations: Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2008 Rect: 147, 610, 167, 597 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 26 26 Which, by the way, essentially brings us back to square one, since this is the core of Bickerton’s original proposal; to wit: “[L]anguage was first and foremost a system of representation … Precisely because of this, language was able to increase, by several orders of magnitude, not just the things but the kinds of things that creatures could communicate about. No mere communicative mechanism could ever have done this.” (Bickerton, 1990 , 75; italics in the original). Rect: 192, 610, 199, 597 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 505 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2011 Rect: 77, 574, 96, 561 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 27 27 This interpretation of the results of Kirby’s models on the emergence of compositionality is not just mine. Thus, for example, Skyrms ( 2010 , 146) also comes the conclusion that it is signal systems that eventually adapt to the “structured mental meanings that are meant to be conveyed”. Rect: 122, 478, 129, 465 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 505 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 28 28 But see Niyogi & Berwick ( 1995 , 2009 ) according to whom language change may show both gradual and punctuated processes, although this has traditionally been a debated issue among language change scholars; see Lightfoot ( 1999 ) for discussion. 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B&C clearly bet on a computational system implementing a structure building operation (i.e., Merge) that would account for such phenomena as structure-dependence and compositionality; the ES is not very explicit about the nature of the mechanisms beyond the assumption that they are learning mechanisms perhaps implementing some kind of Bayesian inference. Rect: 147, 514, 154, 501 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 529 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 30 30 The main controversial point here is whether there has been continuity between full-fledged human lan ­ guages and some ancestral system of signals. The ES models are all constructed with the assumption that there was, while B&C assume that the creation of the amalgam between I-language and externalization is something entirely new, with no connection with ancestral communication systems. 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Rect: 181, 274, 188, 261 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 543 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2007 Rect: 76, 190, 96, 177 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 722 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2020 Rect: 201, 130, 221, 117 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 804 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 31 Rect: 51, 67, 56, 57 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 543 Thumb: true Page: Sequence: 26 Annotations: Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2018 Rect: 365, 598, 385, 585 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 854 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1983 Rect: 300, 574, 320, 561 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 804 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1994 Rect: 288, 562, 308, 549 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 775 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2000 Rect: 347, 562, 367, 549 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 854 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2007 Rect: 362, 550, 382, 537 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 722 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2018 Rect: 365, 538, 385, 525 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 854 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1962 Rect: 340, 454, 360, 441 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1996 Rect: 365, 454, 385, 441 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 882 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2003 Rect: 86, 430, 106, 417 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2006 Rect: 111, 430, 131, 417 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 749 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1994 Rect: 175, 430, 195, 417 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1974 Rect: 303, 370, 323, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1976 Rect: 329, 370, 349, 357 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1994 Rect: 233, 310, 253, 297 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 192, 286, 212, 273 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1976 Rect: 341, 202, 361, 189 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 243, 166, 263, 153 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2025 Rect: 54, 142, 74, 129 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2025 Rect: 200, 106, 220, 93 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 698 Thumb: true Page: Sequence: 27 Annotations: Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 32 32 Arnon et al. ( 2025 ) use the word ‘perspective’ without actually suggesting that it is a technical use of the term, but I believe that the match with Wimsatt’s notion is quite clear. Rect: 359, 610, 366, 597 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 582 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1994 Rect: 93, 478, 113, 465 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 1981 Rect: 217, 478, 237, 465 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 2021 Rect: 280, 442, 300, 429 Flags: Print AppearanceDictionary: true Destination: 908 Annotation: Subtype: Link Contents: 33 33 Massimi has, for all I know, never established this connection with Wimsatt’s perspectives, but she came close to it in Massimi ( 2022b , 119), where she discusses robustness and cites Wimsatt (and Levins). 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