7b00f84c3eee18914d537f1cbed3a9a2 dairy-07-00084-v2.pdf 5d0fed8ed4667cedc9df07f7be2fa0b17914173d dairy-07-00084-v2.pdf 43a8bfb99a84b3714f4836ff914cdd427edcb09d13b643188fd7ea6503168cd8 dairy-07-00084-v2.pdf Title: Turning Gels into Curd: A Review of Gel Firming Models in Rennet Coagulation Subject: Most researchers who have studied enzymatic milk coagulation in depth recognize that this process is composed of two overlapping phases: an enzymatic phase (first) and a non-enzymatic phase (second). The latter is composed of two consecutive sub-phases that are also partially overlapping: the first is called micellar aggregation, and the second is called the gel hardening phase by many researchers. This final phase, which consists of the rearrangement of the three-dimensional para–casein network, is one of the most complex and least studied milk coagulation stages. A review conducted prior to this publication confirmed that existing models describe micellar aggregation up to network formation but cannot characterize the subsequent network rearrangement and gel hardening process. The objective of this review is to examine the main models that describe the gel hardening phase, evaluating each one to highlight its advantages, disadvantages, and main limitations. Among the models reviewed, those based on light scattering stand out, as they are non-invasive and allow for the prediction of gel firmness in real time. This review is expected to provide greater support to the cheese industry in achieving better control of enzymatic milk coagulation. Keywords: milk; enzymatic coagulation; micellar aggregation; gel hardening; cheese manufacture; rheology; optical sensors; process monitoring Author: Daniel Salvador and Manuel Castillo Creator: LaTeX with hyperref Producer: pdfTeX-1.40.29; modified using OpenPDF 1.4.2 CreationDate: Mon Oct 12 14:18:24 2026 CEST ModDate: Mon Oct 12 14:54:01 2026 CEST Custom Metadata: yes Metadata Stream: no Tagged: no UserProperties: no Suspects: no Form: none JavaScript: no Pages: 28 Encrypted: no Page size: 595.276 x 841.89 pts (A4) Page rot: 0 File size: 4277620 bytes Optimized: no PDF version: 1.7 name type encoding emb sub uni object ID ------------------------------------ ----------------- ---------------- --- --- --- --------- JBHXSR+URWPalladioL-Bold Type 1 Custom yes yes yes 232 0 KROFHK+URWPalladioL-Roma Type 1 Custom yes yes yes 233 0 YFEILH+VnURWPalladioL Type 1 Custom yes yes yes 234 0 NMYTYN+EURM10 Type 1 Builtin yes yes yes 235 0 WFGSQE+URWPalladioL-Ital Type 1 Custom yes yes yes 236 0 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ViewerPreferences: HideToolbar: false HideMenubar: false HideWindowUI: false FitWindow: true CenterWindow: false DisplayDocTitle: false NonFullScreenPageMode: UseNone Direction: L2R ViewArea: CropBox ViewClip: CropBox PrintArea: CropBox PageClip: CropBox PageLayout: SinglePage PageMode: UseNone Outlines: Item: Title: Introduction Item: Title: Review Methodology Children: Item: Title: Databases Consulted Item: Title: Search Strategy Item: Title: Inclusion Criteria Item: Title: Exclusion Criteria Item: Title: Selection of Studies Item: Title: Extraction and Analysis of Information Item: Title: Hardening of the Enzymatic Milk Gels Item: Title: Methods for Monitoring the Gel Hardening Phase Children: Item: Title: Methods Based on the Use of Rheological Sensors Item: Title: Methods Based on the Use of Thermal Sensors Item: Title: Methods Based on the Use of Ultrasonic Sensors Item: Title: Methods Based on the Use of Electrical Conductivity Sensors Item: Title: Methods Based on the Use of Optical Sensors Item: Title: Gel Hardening Models Children: Item: Title: Mechanistic Models Children: Item: Title: Tuszyński Model Item: Title: Tokita and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Hori Model Item: Title: Carlson and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Mellema and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Empirical Models Children: Item: Title: Scott Blair and Burnett Model Item: Title: Douillard Model Item: Title: Bamelis and De Baerdemaeker Model Item: Title: Bittante Model Item: Title: Panikuttira and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Hybrid Models Children: Item: Title: Dwyer and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Castillo and Collaborators Model Item: Title: Arango and Castillo Model Item: Title: Emerging Approaches Based on Artificial Intelligence Children: Item: Title: Machine Learning Item: Title: Artificial Neural Networks Item: Title: Deep Learning Item: Title: Digital Twins Item: Title: Summary Item: Title: Conclusions Item: Title: References Info: Title: Turning Gels into Curd: A Review of Gel Firming Models in Rennet Coagulation Author: Daniel Salvador and Manuel Castillo Subject: Most researchers who have studied enzymatic milk coagulation in depth recognize that this process is composed of two overlapping phases: an enzymatic phase (first) and a non-enzymatic phase (second). The latter is composed of two consecutive sub-phases that are also partially overlapping: the first is called micellar aggregation, and the second is called the gel hardening phase by many researchers. This final phase, which consists of the rearrangement of the three-dimensional para–casein network, is one of the most complex and least studied milk coagulation stages. A review conducted prior to this publication confirmed that existing models describe micellar aggregation up to network formation but cannot characterize the subsequent network rearrangement and gel hardening process. The objective of this review is to examine the main models that describe the gel hardening phase, evaluating each one to highlight its advantages, disadvantages, and main limitations. Among the models reviewed, those based on light scattering stand out, as they are non-invasive and allow for the prediction of gel firmness in real time. This review is expected to provide greater support to the cheese industry in achieving better control of enzymatic milk coagulation. 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