The term executive function refers to these mainly private (cognitive) self-directed actions that contribute to self-regulation. So defined, the term incorporates most of the attributes often ascribed to it by others (Denckla, 1994; Stuss & Benson, 1986; Torgesen, 1994; Welsh & Pennington, 1988), including self-directed actions; the organization of behavioral contingencies across time; the use of self-directed speech, rules, or plans; deferred gratification; and goal-directed, future-oriented, purposive, or intentional actions.